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implements,
indicating the early activities of man in Rajasthan.
Thereafter we find rich chalcolithic cultures at Ahar (Udaipur),
Ganeshwar (Sikar District) and Balathan (Udaipur District).
The recently excavated site of Balathal has presented the
evidence of a chalolithic village which is earliest (dated to
2500 B.C.) onto only in Rajasthan, but in India. The banks of
the Saraswati river, which flowed through the western part of
Rajasthan, became the centers of two early and formative
civilizations of India viz. the Indus – Saraswati civilization
and the Vedic civilization. Kalibangan (Hanumangarh District)
was an important center of Indus - Saraswati civilization in
Rajasthan. The Vedic literature mentions the Matsyas and the
Salvas as located near the river Saraswati and there is
evidence to believe that by the close of the Vedic age
Rajasthan had become fully colonized by the Vedic tribes. The
relics of Painted Grey ware culture have been reported from
the dried- up beds of Saraswati and Drshadvati rivers. We also
have evidence of Painted Grey Ware (PGW) from Noh (Bharatpur),
Jodhpur (Jaipur), Viratnagar (Jaipur) and Sanari (Jhunjhunu).
These sites represent the growth of Iron Age in Rajasthan.
Archaeological Sources
Inscription
The inscriptions serve as a very authentic evidence for the
reconstruction of the history and culture of Rajasthan. Not
only do they help us in building up the chronology and
political history on a firm basis; they also offer reliable
pieces of information about the contemporary life and
conditions in Rajasthan. Listed below are some of the
important inscriptions reported from Rajasthan.
Barli Fragmentary Stone Inscription (5th or 4th century B.C.):
This fragmentary inscription was found in the temple of Bhilot
Mata, about a mile from the village Barli, situated about 36
miles southeast of Ajmer. The inscription is now preserved in
the Ajmer museum. It is engraved on a white stone which formed
part of a hexagonal pillar. The characters are Brahmi. The
language is Prakrit mixed with Sanskrit.
Coins
Coins, though they are small in size, sometimes play a big
role in illuminating history not known other sources. They
also serve as ancillary evidence for the history known from
other sources. Excavations and accidental findings have so far
yielded thousands of coins from different parts of Rajasthan.
The earliest coins reported from India are known as ‘punch
marked coins’ which are made of silver and are dated from c.
600 B.C. to 200 B. C. The punching devices of these coins have
no inscriptions; instead they have a number of symbols. A very
big hoard of punch- marked coins was discovered from Rairh (Tonk
District) in Rajasthan. This hoard consisted of 3075 punch –
marked coins of silver.
An another significant hoard from Rajasthan is that of Gupta
gold coins discovered at Bayana (Bharatpur District). It
consists of 1821 gold coins, which add to our knowledge of
Gupta period in general. This hoard has furnished valuable
information about Gupta currency in particular. It is also
indicative of the prosperous conditions prevalent in India
during the Gupta period. The artistic designs on these coins
revel about the aesthetic sense of the society. Five Gupta
coins of silver from Ajmer discovered by Dr. G.H. Ojha and one
silver coin of Kumaragupta from Naliasar- Sambhar discovered
by Dr. Satya Prakash offer some insight into the religious
inclinations and artistic taste of people. On the coin of
Kumaragupta – from Naliasar- Sambhar, a peacock as a vehicle
of Swami – Kartikeya, has been designed in a very beautiful
manner. Six gold coins of Gupta age were discovered from Bairh,
a place situated near Rairh in 1962. Some gold coins of Gupta
age are also reported to have been discovered from the areas
of Jaipur, Ajmer and Mewar, ‘dmonastrating the important role
the coins played in the economic life of the people during the
Gupta age’.
Useful information is also provided by several small hoards of
coins issued by various dynasties, tribes and rulers of
Rajasthan. Bairat has yielded 28 coins of Indo-Greek rulers,
16 of which belong to Menander. Excavation from Sambhar have
yielded many coins which include 6 punch – marked coins of
silver, 6 Indo – Sassanian copper coins. Rangamahal has
provided several Kushana coins, including some post-Kushana
coins. Kshatraps coins are reported from Nagari (Chittorgarh).
A significant number of coins were issued by the republican
tribes of Rajasthan. Prominent amongst them are the coins of
the Malava tribe. Thousands of copper coins issued by the
Malavas have been discovered, mainly from Nagar or Karkota
Nagar (Tonk District) and Rairh (Tonk District). The Malava
coins from Rajasthan are invariably of copper and a fairly
large number of them bear their tribal name. The Malava coins
can be put in three categories. The first category of coins
bear the legend Malavanam Jayah (i. e. victory to the Malavas).
The other two categories of coins consist of those coins which
were discovered in association with the Malava coins and
resemble the latter in fabric. The coins of second category
bear no legend, while those of the third bear enigmatic
legends like Gajava, Haraya, Jamaka, Magacha, Masapa, Pachha,
Bhapamyana etc. the meaning of these legends is not obvious to
us.
Other Antiquities
In the Vedas, the river Saraswati has been eloquently and
extensively applauded. It was, in fact, the ‘life-line’ of
ancient Rajasthan Rigveda VI./49/7). The people of Matsyas are
also mentioned in the Rigveda. They have been shown as
residing near the banks of Saraswati in the Satapatha Brahmana.
The Salvas find mention in the Gopatha Brahmana, as a pair
Janapada alongwith the Matsyas had developed an extensive
kingdom with its capital located at Virata (present Bairat or
Viratanagara in the Jaipur District). The Pandavas are said to
have spent their period of exile at Virata with the help of
the Matsyas who were their allies. According to Mahabharata,
the Matsya Janapada was rich in the wealth of the cows and the
Matsyas were renowned for truth. The Mahabharata also refers
to the Salva country, with its capital at Salvapura, generally
identified with Alwar. The Malvas also find mention in the
Mahabharata as a tribe of great warriors which helped the
Kauravas in their battles against the Pandavas.
The Puranas contain some observations on the sacred places of
Rajasthan. Interestingly, the Skanda – Purana gives a list of
Indian states which includes some states of Rajasthan. These
are : Sakambhara Sapadalaksha; Mewar Sapadalaksha; Tomara
Sapadalaksha; Vaguri (Baged) 88,000; Virata (Bairat) 36,000;
and Bhadra 10,000. The Chinese traveler, Yuan Chwang, makes
certain references related with Rajasthan. He mentions the
place called Po-li-ye-ta-lo which is identified with Virat or
Bairat (Jaipur District). According to him, “Po-li-ye-ta-lo
was 14 or 15 Li or 2½ miles in circuit’ – corresponding almost
exactly with the size of the ancient mound on which the
present town is built. According to Yuan Chwang, “The people
of this city were brave and bold and their king, who was of
the Fei-she (Vaisya) race, was famous for his courage and
skill in war.” Yuan Chwang also mentions the kingdom of
Gurjara by the name Kiu-che-lo. According to him, it was 5,000
Li in circuit. The capital of this kingdom was Pi-lo-mo-lo,
which is generally identified with modern Bhinmal. Yuan Chwang
says that “the king of this country was a Kshatriya by birth,
was a young man celebrated for his wisdom and valour, and he
was a profound believer in Buddhism, and a patron of
exceptional abilities.” The period of 700-1200 A.D., in
Rajasthan was of considerable literary activity. The works
composed by different authors during this phase throw a flood
of light on the political, social economic and religious
conditions of Rajasthan.
Sources of the History and Culture of Rajasthan (1200 –
1900 A.D.)
The period c. 1200 – 1900 A.D. forms one of the most
interesting and inspiring chapters in the annals of Indian
History. But if one intends to study the connected accounts of
the political, socio-economic and cultural developments of
Rajasthan, he is faced with a paucity of material. Though a
comprehensive general view of the dynastic history of Rajput
states was provided by Col. Tod, Kaviraj Shyamal das and Dr.
Ojha, the study yet suffers from critical assessment of
society and other institutions. The study of these aspects
calls for a systematic analysis of source material. For a
precise and critical understanding of history our sources fall
under the following heads: (i) Archaeological sources; (ii)
Documents and Letters; (iii) Contemporary Literature; (iv)
Travelers Accounts; (v) Archival Records and; (vi) Illustrated
Manuscripts and Paintings.
Archaeology
Of all the sources archaeology forms the primary source of our
study. This branch helps us to know much about important sites
and monuments. The mediaeval towns like Ajmer and Amber throw
sufficient light on the town planning and life in them. The
details of village economy can mainly be studied from the
remains of the villages which have been abandoned. Jawar is an
instance of this kind. The sites of urban regions afford a
scope of study of concentrations of population and
possibilities of traffic and trade with the neighboring states
and land. The Military History of the forts is an interesting
subject of study. Similarly, the study of the temples of
Chittor, Amber, Ajmer and other regions of Rajasthan enable us
to gather information about the evolution of architecture. A
detailed study of the sculptures leads us to elucidate the
social aspects of the life – the costumes, ornaments, dance,
musical instruments and pattern of living. The priceless
collections of several museums of Rajasthan and isolated
sculptures from various sites have their own tales to tell.
Though a large number of such pieces have met their premature
death, partly due to the ruthless activities of the invaders
and partly due to unsympathetic concern of public at large,
the remnants at our disposal offer clues to several problems
for the cultural history of our period. The images of Shiv,
Parvati, Yakshas, gods and goddesses, collected and preserved
in the M.B. College Museum, Udaipur, belonging to the 12th to
15th century, depicts a large variety of garments and
ornaments and throw light on mediaeval cults of Rajasthan. A
panel at Vela Kabra temple, Chittor (15th century) depicts
village life with a boy playing a flute and a gathering to the
Kirtistamba (Chittor) depict dresses and ornaments of various
classes of people of the 15th century. Kumbhalgarh helps us to
determine the dresses of aristocrats, the style of their
moustaches and ornaments of 16th century. The figures of the
Memorial Stone of Gor Singh, Deobari, V.S. 1736 depict a fight
between a warrior anda lion. The carved panels at Rajasamudra
represent a dynamic impulse of art depicting the costumes,
beliefs and several aspects of social of fights between the
animals are highly informative regarding the popular pastimes
of a court in Rajasthan. The figures of Bhils and Bhilnis, at
the outer paner of Rishabhadeo temple, 18th century, depict
tribal life of the South – Western Rajasthan.
Of all the Archaeological sources and other sources, the
inscriptions which are found in abundance, in the form of
stone-inscriptions and copper-plate grants, form the primary
authority of the period of our study. Most of them are found
in temples, mosques and forts, reporting not only about the
heroic and pious deeds of their builders or donators but also
indicating the literary, linguistic, political, social,
religious and economic changes that took place subsequently in
Rajasthan. It is true that some of them record legendary
accounts, yet they, no doubt, serve as the real landmarks of
Rajasthan history. The language of the inscriptions of our
period is generally Sanskrit or Rajasthani. We also have a
number of inscriptions in Persian relating to the medieval
period from different parts of Rajasthan. Some of the
inscriptions are in the running Mahajani script, which is
difficult to read. We have a number of copper plates also
relating to our period of study from different parts of
Rajasthan. A copper plate grant of 1535 A.D., preserved in the
old deposited records, Udaipur, refers to Rani Karmavati’s
performance of Jauhar along with several other ladies of the
royal household and of the notable families of the period. A
copper plate grant of V.S. 1669 records that Rana Karan
Singh’s wife went to Dwarka and there granted land to the
Brahmanas. Several in the old deposited records, udaipur of
Bikaner give the classifications of land and the rate of state
demands. Similarly, a copper plate grant of V.S. 1767 (1710
A.D.) refers to grant of jagir to the local priest of Gaya,
Varanasi and Hardwar at the time of immersing the ashes in the
sacred river Ganga. A Bikaner copper-plate grant of 1816 A.D.
is a specimen of the language bearing the Punjabi mode of
address to a dignity.
Unpublished – Documents, Letters etc.
Next important source comprises of documents in Persian and
Rajasthani. There are several such collections in manuscripts,
preserved in various Government Departments or owned by
private individuals. These documents constitute very useful
source of our information. They are all unpublished.
Contemporary Literature
The production of literature in Persian, Sanskrit, Rajasthani
and Hindi has been a long tradition in our country. This kind
of literature covers several aspects – political, religious,
social, philosophical, astronomical, literary and scientific.
Though the main aim (leaving aside purely historical
literature) of its writing had been to enrich the special
branch to which it belonged, it also reflected richness in
yielding historical data.
Persian
If we turn up to Persian literature we find that much has been
written in this language, covering the history of the Sultans
of Delhi and the Mughal emperors. There are a couple of
autobiographies also written by the Mughal rulers themselves.
But as the main emphasis in this kind of literature is on its
accounts of the Sultans and the emperors, it is in vain to
expect from them much which is relevant for the history of
Rajasthan. However, due to the closer contact of the Rajput
princes with the Sultans and the Mughal emperors, we are in a
position to get the glimpses of the events relating to
Rajasthan.
Rajasthani Literature: Vat, Varta and Khyats
This kind of literature at times contains valuable material
for history. It is a class by itself and preserves traditions
and clan-accounts of the Rajpur families and ruling houses of
repute. The works belonging to this class contain material for
finding historical chronology. Some of them also help in
correcting genealogies of ruling dynasties. They also
constitute a valuable repository of information on the
cultural history of feudal families.
Traveler's Accounts
Quite a large number of European travelers visited India
during our period of study. Their accounts of the cities,
court-lite and general condition of the country, though vivid,
are full of the interpretation and impression which is not
free from personal prejudices and idea of race superiority.
Fortunately in the general description of India given by the
travelers, we trace out here and there some references to
Rajasthan which are useful for our study of political, social
and cultural life of the state. However, in accepting their
statements we have to observe caution, as what they write is
not wholly true and accurate. William Finch in his Early
Travels is in India gives a valuable description of the outer
wall and ditch of Bharatpu, prosperity of Mewar and Amber. His
account of Ajmer as a town and religious place of the Muslims
are very interesting. Similarly, Sir Thomas Roe’s and Terry’s
description of Ajmer and gifts from Jahangir to Kunwar Karan
are vivid and picturesque. Again Manrique Fray Sebastian’s
notices of the town of Jaisalmer, its people and their local
dances are highly informative. The accounts of Tavernier and
Betnier about eclipse, charity, sati system, Holi festival,
industrial activities and Indian poverty are of great value.
Manucchi’s references of the desert of Rajasthan, Ajmer and
Mewar are accurate. His accounts of villages and hills of
Mewat show his intimacy with the area. His observations on the
opium-eating habits of the Rajputs are graphic. His references
to the articles of decoration of turban, festival of Holi and
handicraft industries of Rajasthan are of great use. Captain
Mundy’s description of the jungles of Bharatpur and the local
dresses of the common people of the town is graphic. Bishop
Herber’s description of Jaipur and Ajmer and his observations
on festivals and local customs are highly informative.
Archival Records
The princely states of Rajasthan had a historic past which
necessitated the maintaining of records of varied nature:
revenue, judiciary, police, taxation etc. Obviously these
records have a continuity and throw sufficient light over the
various aspects of life – domestic, political, social and
cultural. These records include a large number of Bahis,
Chopanayas, Haqiqats, Dasturs and the like, prepared date and
year wise under the supervision of the officers of repute.
They have been classified after the names of the pre-merger
states of Rajasthan. These records are unpublished and written
in Rajasthani dialects. A brief content of some of these
records will reveal that, being old and authenticated, they
are thoroughly reliable and throe a good deal of light on some
new aspects of the history of Rajasthan. The Pattas or the
revenue records (Bikaner) of our period are the summaries of
items of expenditure and income prepared year wise. They
preserve the mode and rate of revenue of the state. The Sahar
Lakha Bahi records the daily wages of masons and labourers.
The Kamthana Bahis give details of the construction in the
states. The Modi Khana Bahis and the Mahat – Talka Bahis
preserve the names of various office – holders like Patel,
Patwari, Chaudhari, Qanungo, tufedar, potdar, havaldar etc.
The Rokad Bahis refer to several local cesses. The Byava Bahis
refer to various rates of interest and private debts and
credit accounts of the States. The archival records of Jodhpur
consists of Bahis and Files. The Byava Bahis, as for example,
contain accounts of the rites and ceremonies of royal
marriages. The Haqiqat Bahis contain much raw material for the
political, administrative, social, and cultural history of
Marwar. The records pertaining to the economic aspects have
much to say about trade-routes, famine, labour condition,
export and import of the state. They are also informative
regarding festivals of Holi, Teej, Gangor, Dashera, Diwali
etc. the Havala Bahis refer to the units of administration and
the concerning office holders like hakims, shiqdars, qanungos,
thanayatolers, havaldars, chaudharies, etc. The Hat Bahis
preserves notes on the purchase made for the imperial
household, promotions and demotions of the officers and other
details of income from the parganas. The Portfolio Files of
Jodhpur contain original letters, drafts and notes addressed
to the administrators of and the rulers of the States. These
files make a valuable addition to the history of the
inter-state relations in Rajasthan. The Jaipur Archives
contain several kinds of records. The Siyahah Hazurs supply a
mine of information regarding the income and expenditure of
the state, the puchase made, variety of articles manufactured
etc. The Dastur Komvars contain names of persons employed by
the state and the gifts given to them on several occasions.
They also serve as service references. The Tojees records
refer to all items of income and expenditure parganawise and
datewise. There are also Tojees pertaining to the various
departments of the states. The Archival records of Udaipur
also have records like the Rojnamahs and Chopdas. The Dargah
files of Ajmer, for example, refer to the system of education
in the Dargah for the children of the Khadims, donations made
and religious services attended etc. The century file No. (9)
of Ajmer refers to 26 kinds of coins of different values and
weights in use in Rajasthan.
IIustrated Manuscripts and Paintings
The Rajasthani paintings which are found in huge collections
at various museums, art galleries and private collections of
the state are important landmark in his historical studies.
They not only represent the typical styles of different
schools of the art, beauty they also stand as testimony of the
age to which they belong. Right from the 12th to 18th century
we come across several paintings which present Rajasthani
culture inits true perspective, the account of which may be
attempted through a few illustrated manuscripts and paintings.
The Kalkacharya Kathas and the Kalpa Sutra manuscripts of
private collections help us to study the life of the
aristocrats, their dresses and ornaments from the 13th to 17th
century. They also show the mode of living, equipments of the
household and other aspect of life. Similarly the Bhavwat
Purana MSS of Jodhpur and Udaipur may be used with profit to
study the pattern of the house of the various classes of the
people. The Ragini sets of Kota and Jaipur museums paint
ladies with dresses and ornaments peculiar to their status.
The Arsha Ramayan of the Saraswati Bhawan, Udaipur depicts the
scenes of the town life, village life and life in hermitages.
The illustrations of war and method of fighting by the footmen
and charioteers of that age. Moreover, the manuscript is very
important as regards the study of the costumes and ornaments
of the ladies and men of different standard. |
