and the
predominance of a tribal system of political organization.
However, with the knowledge and use of iron technology, it saw
the beginning of the spread of agriculture throughout the
country. It thus laid the foundations of a civilization in all
parts of the country, whereas the Harappan culture had been
confined to parts of north-western India. The culture that
began to emerge during this phase was the result of the
intermixing of the Indo-Aryans with the pre-existing
inhabitants of India. It is interesting to remember that some
elements of the culture of this period have survived over a
period of 3000 years and continue to be a part of Indian
culture today. The next phase, covering the period from about
the sixth century B.C. to about 200 B.C., is marked by
far-reaching changes in almost every aspect of life in India.
This period saw the spread of agriculture over large parts of
the country, the rise of cities and the formation of states.
The period also saw the rise and decline of the first
all-India empire in Indian history. This period is important
not only for political unity but also for cultural unity. Two
major religions –Jainism and Buddhism – which arose in the
sixth century B.C. left a lasting influenced religious beliefs
and practices which, grouped together, are known as Hinduism.
Hinduism as it developed, included many Vedic beliefs and
practices but had many other features which distinguished it
from the religion of the Vedas. This period saw the spread
throughout the country of beliefs and practices associated
with Hinduism, including Vedic religion, as well as Buddhism
and Jainism. Alongside these, a large number of other beliefs
and practices also continued. The Varna system, the system of
social organization popularly known as the caste system, which
had arisen in the Vedic Age now became well-established and
gradually became the dominant form of social organization
throughout the country. This form of social organization was
peculiar to India. The rise of cities, crafts and trade also
furthered the process of cultural unity. This process is best
exemplified by Ashoka. He unified almost the entire country
under one empire but renounced the use of war as state policy.
Instead he declared the victory of righteousness as the real
victory. In him we also find a change in the ideal of
kingship. Ashoka, in one of his edicts, said, “whatever
exertions I make, I strive only to discharge the debt that I
owe to all living creatures”. Mosst of his inscriptions spread
over different parts of the country are in Prakrit, which
seems to have become the lingua franca of the country, and in
Brahmi script, the earliest known Indian script, and mother of
Indian Scripts. However, in areas where the language and
script were different, the Ashokan edicts were inscribed in
the local language and the local script. Though he himself
became a Buddhist, Ashoka made no effort to impose it on
others. In one of his edicts, he said, “One who reveres one’s
own religion and disparages that of another from devotion to
one’s own religion and to glorify it over all other religions,
does injure one’s own religion most certainly”.
The next phase in ancient Indian history covers the period
form about 200 B.C. to about A.D. 300. This phase is extremely
important for the changes that took place in economic and
political life, and significant developments in various
aspects of culture, including religion, art and science and
technology. In economic life, this period is significant for
advancement in India’s international trade, both by land and
sea routes, and the emergence of crafts and towns, unknown to
earlier phases of ancient Indian history. In political life,
large parts of north-western, northern and western India were
ruled by dynasties of non-Indian origin. These were the
Indo-Greeks, the Shakas, the Parthians and the Kushanas. These
political contacts facilitated developments in the economy
mentioned above and brought India into close contact with the
cultures of Central and West Asia and with the Graeco-Roman
world. This interaction played an important role in the
flowering of Indian culture during this phase. Most of the
foreign rulers of Indian territories adopted one or the other
Indian religions. A significant event was the growth of the
Mahayana sect of Buddhism, which the Kushana ruler Kanishka
patronized, and the development of the great Buddhist art
associated with it. In the Deccan and the south, a number of
states emerged, including the powerful kingdom of the
Satavahanas. These states also developed close trade relations
with other parts of the world. There was significant progress
of Buddhist art in the south. India’s first contact with
Christianity is believed to have taken place during this
period; though it was many centuries later that Christianity
came to have a significant following in India.
The last phase of the ancient period of Indian history starts
in early fourth century A.D. and ends in about the eighth
century. The Guptas built a large kingdom during this period
which remained powerful for about a century. In the Deccan and
the south, there were two major kingdoms during this period –
of the Pallavas and of the Chalukyas. In some respects, this
was also a period of reversals, which witnessed a gradual
decline of towns and trade, of strong centralized states, and
the beginning of the system of land grants. These
developments, according to some scholars, mark the beginning
of feudalism in India. Some of the finest achievements in
various fields of culture-art, architecture, literature,
philosophy, science, technology – can, however, be dated to
this period. Because of these achievements, this period is
often described as the classical age of Indian civilization.
In religion, this is a period of decline of Buddhism and the
rise of Brahmanical religion or Hinduism as we know it today.
Idol worship became popular and building of temples on a large
scale started in the south and the Deccan as well as in the
north. Art inspired by Buddhism also continued, particularly
in sculpture and painting. Great progress was made in
literature, both religious and secular, in Sanskrit which also
became the language of the courts in most parts of the
country. Tamil literature also made great progress and the
Alvars and Nayanars, the Vaishnavite and Shaivite saints, made
lasting contributions to it. In spite of the dominant position
of Sanskrit in most parts of the country, this period marks
the beginning of many modern Indian languages as well as
distinct scripts in different parts of the country. The period
is also important for some of the most significant advances in
science and technology. Most of the major works in astronomy,
mathematics and medicine belong to this period.
By the time the ancient period of Indian history came to a
close, India had developed a culture which was marked by
features that have characterized it ever since.
The Medieval Period
During the medieval period, some of the achievements of the
ancient times were carried forward and new and magnificent
structures were built on those foundations. Many new elements
appeared in Indian society which influenced the growth of
various aspects of culture.
The period from the eighth to the twelfth century in political
life is dominated mainly by the presence of a large number of
states. The bigger ones among them tried to establish their
supremacy in northern India and the Deccan. The main
contenders in this struggle for supremacy were the Pratiharas,
the Palas and the Rashtrakutas. In the south, the most
powerful kingdom to emerge during this period was that of the
Cholas. The Cholas brought about the political unification of
large parts of the country but the general political picture
was that of fragmentation, particularly in northern India. The
process of decline in trade and of urban centers had
continued. In social life, there was greater rigidification of
the caste system than before. In some respects, the period was
characterized by stagnation and insularity. Seen as a whole,
however, the situation was not so dismal. Some of the most
splendid temples in India were built, in a variety of regional
styles, during this period, both in the north and the south.
The period is also important for the growth of modern Indian
languages. Architecture, sculpture, literature, and philosophy
flourished under the patronage of the Chola Kings. Trade and
cultural contact with the countries of South-East Asia
received an impetus in the Chola kingdom. New trends towards
cultural unity also emerged during this period. One of these
trends is associated with the name of the philosopher
Shankaracharya who set up his maths or monasteries in
different parts of the country. The other was the beginning of
the Bhakti cult throughout the country. It had originated with
the Alvars and Nayanars, this cult became a major feature of
the religious life of the people in most parts of the country.
It was in this period that India’s contact with the new
religion of Islam began. The contacts began late in the
seventh century through the Arab traders. Later, in early
eighth century, the Arabs conquered Sind. In the tenth
century, the Turks emerged as a powerful force in Central and
West Asia and carved out kingdoms for themselves. They
conquered Persia but, in turn, their life was deeply
influenced by the old and rich Persian culture. The Turks
first invaded India during the late tenth and early eleventh
century and Punjab came under Turkish rule. Another series of
Turkish invasions in the late twelfth and early thirteenth
century led to the establishment of the Sultanat of Delhi.
Within a few centuries after the rise of Islam in Arabia, it
became the second most popular religion in India with
followers in every part of the country.
The establishment of the Sultanat of Delhi marked the
beginning of a new phase in the history of medieval India.
Politically, it led to the unification of northern India and
parts of the Deccan for almost century. Its rulers, almost
from the time of the establishment of the Sultanat, succeeded
in separating in from the country from which they had
originally come. The Sultanat disintegrated towards the end of
the fourteenth century leading to the emergence of a number of
kingdoms in different parts of the country. Some of these, for
example, the Bahmani and Vijaynagar kingdoms, became very
powerful. In society, the period is important for the
introduction of new elements – the Turks, the Persians, the
Mongols and the Afghans, besides the Arabs who had settled
sown in some coastal regions- into India. There were important
changes in economic life also. Trade and crafts received a
stimulus and many new towns arose as centers of
administrations, trade and crafts. New elements of technology
were also introduced during this period.
Culturally, this period marks the beginning of a new stage in
the growth of India’s composite culture. It saw the
introduction of new features in art and architecture of India
and their diffusion to all parts of the country. The
architecture that developed during this period was the result
of the synthesis of the traditions of Central Asia and Persia
with the pre-existing Indian styles. During the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries, distinctive styles of art and
architecture also developed in the regional kingdoms, which
had emerged with the disintegration of the Sultanat. During
this time notable advances were made in the development of
languages and literature. Modern Indian languages, which had
started developing earlier, became major vehicles of
literature. These languages were enriched by the Bhakti saints
and this gave the literature of these languages many common
features: Two new languages – Arabic and Pesian – became a
part of India’s linguistic heritage. Of these, Arabic was
mainly the language of Islamic learning. For literature and in
its widespread use, Pesian was more important. In many areas,
it replaced Sanskritas the court language and throughout the
country, along with Sanskrit, it became the language of
learning. Historical writings for the first time became an
important component of Indian literature. Under the influence
of Persian, new forms of literature such as the ghazal were
introduced.
The period saw two great religious movements, besides the
spread of a new religion. The Bhakti movement which had
started many centuries earlier, spread throughout the country.
Significantly, the Bhakti movement, best represented by Kabir
and Nanak, disapproved of religious narrow-mindedness,
superstitions ad observance of formal rituals. The Bhakti
saints condemned caste inequalities and laid stress on human
brotherhood. The other was the Sufi movement. The Sufis, or
the Muslim mystics, preached the message of love and human
brotherhood. These two movements played a leading role in
combating religious exclusiveness and narrow-mindedness and in
bringing the people of all communities together. Sikhism began
to emerge as a new religion based on the teachings of Guru
Nanak and other saints.
The growth of a composite culture reached its highest point
under the Great Mughals in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries. The Mughals built an empire which once again
brought about the political unification of a large part of the
country. Like Ashoka earlier, Akbar, the greatest of the
Mughal emperors, followed a policy of Sulh-kul (‘peace with
all’). He said, “The various religious communities are Divine
treasures enthused to us by God. We must love them as such. It
should be our firm faith that every religion is blessed by
Him, and our earnest end avour to enjoy the bliss of the
evergreen garden of universal toleration. The Eternal King
showers his favors on all men with out distinction. Kings who
are ‘Shadows of God’ should never give up this principle”.
Some of the finest specimens of Indian architecture and
literature belong to this period. A new significant art form
was painting which flourished under the patronage of the
Mughal court. Influenced by the Persian traditions, the Mughal
painting developed into a distinct Indian style. It later
spread to other parts of the country in various regional
styles. Another significant development was the emergence of
anew language –Urdu- which became the lingua franca of the
people of the towns in many parts of the country.
The Modern Period
The eighteenth century marks the beginning of the modern
period of India’s history. Politically, the period saw the
decline of the Mughal empire and the rise of a number of small
and big independent states in different parts of the country:
None of these states was able to replace the Mughal empire
which had politically unified a large part of the country for
about 150 years. In spite of this, however, the process of the
growth of composite culture continued. This is evident from
the new schools of painting which arose as a result of the
influence of the Mughal painting, literature in various Indian
languages, including Urdu, and the continuing process of the
coming together of people belonging to different communities.
This period, when looked at in the context of changes taking
place in some other parts of the world, is one of stagnation.
Some of the developments that had been bringing about
far-reaching changes in the social, economic, cultural and
political life, were taking place in Europe. Significant
advancements had taken place in the field of science, and soon
new technologies were to further transform the social,
economic and political life in many countries of Europe. The
process of colonization of vast areas of the world by a few
European counties had been underway since the sixteenth
century. Changes of a comparable nature failed to take place
in India, as also in other countries of Asia and Africa. There
was also no awareness of the importance of the changes taking
place in Europe in spite of contacts with European traders,
missionaries and others. From about the middle of the
eighteenth century, the conquest of India by Britain began. It
was completed in a few decades and by the middle of the
nineteenth century, the entire country was under the direct or
indirect rule of the British. For the first time in her
history, India came under foreign rule. She was ruled by
foreigners who had not come to settle but to rule in the
interest of their mother country. A new system of exploitation
of one country by the dominant classes and groups of another
country came into being. Under the new conditions created by
foreign rule, the people of India were awakened and this
awakening expressed itself, finally, in the struggle for
independence, the end of imperialist exploitation of India the
early decades of the nineteenth century, various social,
religious, cultural and intellectual movements took root which
aimed at removing the state of stagnation of Indian society.
These movements were influenced by the modern democratic,
humanistic and scientific though and played an important role
in promoting national consciousness and in laying the
foundations of a new phase in India’s cultural development.
The nationalist movement united the Indian people on a new
basis. It recognized and cherished the unity in diversity and
the composite nature of India’s culture as its unique feature.
Te nurturing of this feature was an integral part of the
nationalist movement’s objective of building an independent,
united and forward-looking Indian.
Art and Architecture
The story of Indian art begins with Harappan culture. You have
seen that the Harappans were great builders, skilled in town
planning. The houses with the various facilities, the
granaries, the Great Bath, show how skilful and efficient the
people were in construction. The terracotta and stone images,
the bronze figure of the dancing girl and the artistic seals
reveal the exquisite workmanship of the artists.
Mauryan Period
The next stage of Indian art begins with the Mauryan period.
It was a period of economic prosperity, important development
in religious thinking and practice and also one of remarkable
artistic achievements. Megasthenes, who came to India as the
ambassador of the Greek ruler Seleucus, described the palace
of Chandragupta Maurya in glowing terms. It was large and
luxurious and built of carver wood. The earliest stone
buildings were based on wooden models.
The monolithic pillars of Ashoka on which are inscribed his
famous edicts are the great monuments of the Mauryan age. Some
scholars trace these pillars to the influence of Persia. The
most striking feature of these pillars is the finely carved
capital with magnificent animal figures. We are all familiar
with Sarnath lion capital which forms part of India’s National
Emblem. The Rampurva Bull capital is one of the best specimens
of animal sculpture. The polish and smoothness of these
pillars are amazing.
Another artistic achievement of this period is the famous
stupa at Sanchi. In every stupa there was a small camber in
which a casket with relics of the Buddha or the Buddhist monks
were placed. The surface of the sputa was generally built of
bricks with a thick layer of plaster. The stupa was crowned by
an umbrella of stone. The monument was surrounded by a fence
with a path provided for Pradakshina (circumambulation). The
original stupas were enlarged and beautified from time to
time. The Sanchi stupa which still stands intact is a
well-preserved and splendid monument. A number of lesser
stupas and other buildings such as monasteries and rest-houses
are found in and around the main stupa.
The stupa at Sanchi as it stands today has stone railings and
gateways around it. These were added later after the Mauryas.
The gateways are a very striking feature. There are four
gateways at the four cardinal points and they contain very
lively and beautifully carved panels. In these panels are
depicted events from the life of the Buddha and details from
the Jataka stories. They also depict a landscape of trees and
floral designs, groups of animals and birds, beautiful figures
of yakshas and yakshinis, and men and women. Thus the Sanchi
reliefs present the story of the Buddha and provide glimpses
into Indian life through clear, simple and dramatic scenes.
The Buddha is depicted in these panels not through his image
but through the use of various symbols; for example, the horse
represents his ‘renunciation’, the ‘boddhi’ tree his
enlightenment.
Gandhara and Mathura Schools of Art
The next important stage in the growth of art is associated
with the name of Gandhara in the north-west. By this time the
worship of the image of Buddha had become common. After the
Greek invasions and during the period of the Kushanas, many
artists from West Asia had settled down in the north – west of
India. They were deeply influenced by the Graeco-Roaman art.
Mahayana Buddhism encouraged image worship. The Kushana kings,
particularly Kanishaka, encouraged the Gandhara artists to
sculpture themes from Buddha’s life and the Jatakas. The
distinctive school of art which grew here is called the
Gandhara school of art. A large number of the images of the
Buddha and the Bodhisattavas were produced.
Another school of art to develop in the early centuries of the
Christian era is that of Mathura. From the beginning of the
Christian era, Mathura became an important center of artistic
activities and the figures of the Buddha and the Bodhisattavas
were produced there. The fine qualities of indigenous art
traditions were preserved and improved upon by the Mathura
sculptors. The images produced here became the models for the
succeeding generations of artists.
This was also the period of the growth of art in developed
under the Satavahana kings. Like the stupa at Sanchi, there
was a great stupa in Amaravati in the lower Godavari valley.
The stupa has disappeared but many of its fine pieces are
still intact in various museums. Many bas-relief medallions
and paneled friezes decorated the stupa. These, like the stupa
at Sanchi, depict events from the life of the Buddha and the
Jataka stories. One of these depicts the story of the taming
of the elephant by the Buddha. A rogue-elephant was let loose
to kill the Buddha while he was walking along the streets of
Rajagriha. The panel shows the elephant rushing through the
streets, the panic it caused, the reactions of men and women
and finally the elephant kneeling before the Buddha. The
climax, is portrayed subtly and Pallavas of the Deccan and
southern India added magnificent monuments, both caves and
structural temples.
Both the rock-cut and structural monuments of the Pallavas are
magnificent specimens of architecture. The Mandapas at
Mahabalipuram are excavated halls with finely carved pillars
and panels.
The splendid panel called the ‘Descent of the Ganga’ in
Mahabalipuram is a unique rock-cut sculpture. The story of
Bhagiratha’s penance to bring down the Ganga is the theme of
the panel.
The Rathas of Mahabalipuram are well known. The ‘Ratha’ is a
shrine carved out of a single rock and it looks like a
structural temple. These Rathas are named after the Pandavas.
When you look at these Rathas, you find that each one of them
is different in shape and size.
The Structural Temples
The Pallavas built a number of structural temples also. The
most famous of these is the ‘Shore temple’ at Mahabalipuram.
It is located on the sea shore and hence it has been called
the ‘Shore temple’. The twin towers of this temple set in a
picturesque background, make it an enchanting sight on a
moonlit night. Kanchipuram was the capital of the Pallavas and
numerous temples were built there. Two of them stand out
prominently. The Kailasanatha temple with its lovely vimana
and the numerous panels depicting Shiva as Nataraja is a fine
specimen of Pallava art. The Vaikunthaperumal temple is noted
for its vimana and the series of panels depicting the history
of the Pallava dynasty.
The Cholas with their capital at Thanjavur were great
builders. The greatest temple of India, the Birhadeeshwara
temple at Thanjavur, was built during the reign of Rajaraja
Chola. The most striking feature of this temple is its vimana.
It is about 65 meters high and is built in such a way that its
shadow does not fall on the ground. The grace and grandeur of
the vimana have not been excelled by any other such creation.
The pillared halls and the sculptures are fine specimens of
Chola art. In one of the halls, the various dance postures
mentioned in Bharata’s Natyashastra are shown in sculptures.
In the walls of the inner shrine there are a number of fine
paintings.
Many other famous temples were built in the south. The Pandya
rulers encouraged the building of high outer walls with
entrance gateways topped by gopurams. Attention was now
concentrated on the gopurams rather than the vimana or the
shikahara above the main shrine. The artistic glory of the
gopuram became so popular that it became a special
characteristic of south Indian temples. The gopurams of Kanchi
and Madurai temples can be seen from long distances.
The Hoysala rulers of Mysore were great patrons of art.
Magnificent temples were built in Belur, Halebid and other
places. These temples are noted for the profusion of manifold
pillars with rich and intricate carvings. The delicately
carved friezes, the minute details of the panels depicting
gods and goddesses, are the work of the jeweler rather than of
the sculptor.
The Bronze Sculpture of the Cholas
Starting during the late Pallava period, the bronze sculpture
reached heights of glory during the Chola rule. The image of
Nataraja (the Lord of Dance) is a superb masterpiece of the
Chola bronze sculpture. The grandeur of its conception, its
symbolism, its artistic excellence and its charm has impressed
connoisseurs throughout the world. There are many images of
Nataraja in different dance poses. The bronze sculptures were
one of the most significant contributions of the Cholas to
Indian art.
North Indian Temples
As in southern India, several styles of temple architecture
developed in northern India.
Some of the most magnificent temples were built in Orissa. The
Lingaraja temple of Bhubaneswar is located in an extensive
area, with a number of subsidiary shrines. The spire of the
Lingaraja temple is about 40 meters high and is very
impressive. The immense spire is curved and has a rounded top.
Though there are many similarities between these and the
temples in the south, the differences in style are striking.
The sun temple in Konark, popularly known as the ‘black
pagoda’, perhaps because of the black stone used, is unique in
design. Since it is dedicated to the sun god, the whole temple
is designed as a chariot with twelve massive wheels drawn by
seven horses. Each wheel with its rich carvings is a
masterpiece. The human and animal figures carved out in black
stone are most lifelike. The poses of dancing apsaras depicted
in sculptures are studied by dancers even today and are
brought alive by them in their performances. The theme of
several of these sculptures is amorous. The Chandella rulers
of central India built the great temples of Khajuraho. The
built the great temples of Khajuraho. The shikhara of these
temples is graceful and refined and is adorned with
sculptures.
The style of the shikhara varies from that of the others. The
sculptures in Konark and Khajuraho are some of the finest in
India. They are full of life and vitality.
The Jain temples at Mount Abu are the finest monuments of the
Solanki kings of Gujarat who were great patrons of art. The
prosperous trade brought in wealth that was used for building
Hindu and Jain temples. The Abu temples are very attractive
because of the delicate and intricate carvings in white
marble.
New Elements in Medieval Art and Architecture
The coming of the Turks inaugurated a new era in the history
of Indian architecture, the turks brought with them
architectural ideas developed in Persia, Arabia and Central
Asia. When these new rulers started erecting religious and
secular buildings such as palaces and mosques, they came into
contact with the traditions that had already been developed in
India. The interaction of these two traditions resulted in a
new synthesis of architectural styles. The rulers of the
Sultanat were great patrons of architecture and under them the
process of synthesis started. It continued with many regional
variations in the different kingdoms. During the Mughal
period, the flowering of this synthesis took place and some of
the greatest monuments of India were built. Based on the
interaction of the two traditions, a unique Indian style of
architecture was developed in this period.
Before we describe this development, it may be useful to see
the distinctive features of the Islamic architecture which
were to play an important part in the development of a new
style in Indian architecture.
These features are clearly seen in the standardized
architecture of the mosque and the mausoleum. The mosque
consisted of a large, rectangular open courtyard surrounded by
arcades on all four sides. The mehrab which faces Mecca
indicates the direction to the prayer. The call to worship was
made from a tall tower or minarets. Another characteristic
feature was the arch in the gateway and other places. The dome
was another prominent feature of the mosque and the mausoleum.
The chief decorative element was sculpturing the building with
geometrical designs and lettering in calligraphic style. Some
of these features were new to Indian architecture. The ancient
Indian buildings were decorated with beautiful carving and
sculpture while the Muslim buildings were marked by simplicity
and lack of adornment. When the new buildings began to be
erected, the two styles were gradually synthesized into a new
and unique style.
Architecture under the Sultanat
The Turkish rulers utilized the services of the local
designers and craftsmen who were among the most skilful in the
world. The new fusion that started to take place avoided the
extreme simplicity of the Islamic architecture and the lavish
decoration of the earlier Indian architecture.
Among the first buildings to be erected were the mosques at
Delhi and Ajmer by Qutb-ud-din Aibak. The mosque built in
Delhi was called the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque. It measured about
70 x 30 meters. The central arch of this mosque which is
decorated with beautiful sculptured calligraphy still stands
and is about 17 meters high and about 7 meters wide.
The successor of Qutb-ud-din, Iltutmish, was a great builder.
He further extended the mosque. He also completed the building
of the Qutb Minar which had been started by Qutb-ud-din and
now stood in the extended courtyard of the mosque. This is a
tower rising to a height of about 70 metres and is one of the
most renowned monuments of India.
The next important buildings belong to the reign of Al-ud-din
Khalji. He enlarged the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque still further
and built a gateway to the enclosure of the mosque, the Alai
Darwaza. Decorative element was introduced to beautify the
building. He also started building a minar which was designed
to be double the height of Qutb Minar, but the project
remained unfulfilled.
The Tughlaqs who came after the Khaljis concentrated on the
building of new cities in Delhi like Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah
and Feozabad. A number of buildings were erected which
differed in their style from the earlier buildings. Massive
and strong structures like the tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq and
the walls of Tughlaqabad were built. The buildings of the
Tughlaq period were significant from the point of view of the
development of architecture. They were not beautiful but
massive and very impressive.
Architecture in the Regionnal Kingdoms
The regional kingdoms, building on the achievements of the
previous period, developed their own distinctive styles of
architecture. The process of synthesis continued in these
kingdoms also and resulted in the construction of some of the
finest buildings in India.
In Bengal were built the Adina mosque and the tomb of
Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Shah at Pandua and the Dakhil Darwaza
and Tantipara mosque at Gaur. The oblong shape of many
structures and the peculiar style of roof constructions were
some of the distinctive features of the regional architecture
of Bengal.
In Jaunpur, the Sharqi kings built an impressive monument, the
Atala mosque. A huge massive screen covers the dome. The walls
and the ceilings are decorated with many ancient Indian
designs like the lotus.
The rulers of Gujarat built many structures notable for their
grandeur and excellence of their carving and other decorative
forms. Ahmad Shah, the founder of Ahmedabad is the Sadi
Saiyyid mosque popularly known as the Jaliwali Masjid. The
delicacy of the work is evident from the screens. Mahmud
Begarha built the imposing Jama Masjid at Champaner.
The buildings at Mandu developed a distinctive style of their
own under the Sultans of Malwa. Here were built the Jama
Masjid, the Hindola Mahal, the Jahaz Mahal and a number of
tombs. The buildings of Malwa have wide and imposing arches
and the windows are gracefully decorated. The tomb of Hoshang
Shah is made entirely of marble, the first of its kind in
India, and is delicately decorated with yellow and black
marble inlay work.
The rulers of Kashmir also built many beautiful buildings.
Timber, stone and brick were used in the Jama Masjid completed
by Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin. The turret is a striking feature of
the mosques of Kashmir and recalls to mind of brick and glazed
tiles, has been designed in the Persian style.
The Bahmani Sultans in the Deccan erected a number of
buildings in a distinctive style at Bidar and Gubarga. They
borrowed from the styles of Persia, Syria, Turkey and those of
the temples of southern India. The Jama Masjid in Gulbarga is
quite well known. The courtyard of this mosque is covered with
a large number of domes. It is the only mosque in India which
has a covered courtyard. Instead of minarets, there are domes
at the four corners and a fifth and bigger one above the
prayer chamber. The absence of decorative work does not mar
its grandeur. There are two groups of tombs. The first group
has the tombs of the first two Sultans and shows the impress
of Tughlaq architecture. The second group called the half
gumbad or ‘seven tombs’ shows the influence of Persian and
ancient Indian styles. Bidar also has a number of tombs. The
tomb of Sultan Ahmad Shah Ali is richly decorated with
beautiful paintings. The finest monument at Bidar is the
madrasa of Mahmud Gavan, the great minister of the Bahmani
Kingdom for many years. It is a three-storeyed building and
has two towering minars at the front corners.
After the Bahmani kingdom was split up, many other buildings,
such as the Mehtar Mahal and the Ibrahim Rauza, were erected
in the new principalities. The Gol Gumbaz, which is one of the
largest domes in the world, at Bijapur, and the fort of
Golconda, which is one of the strongest in India, and many
tombs in Golconda also belong to this period.
These regional kingdoms, in the north and the south, played a
significant role in the development of a common culture.
The Vijayanagar kingdom in the south which arose in the
fourteenth century and was destroyed in A.D. 1565 also had a
number of achievements in architecture to its credit. Only the
ruins remain to tell the story of their past magnificence. The
best examples of the Vijayanagar architecture were the
Vithalswami and Hazar Rama temples at Hampi. The former has
three gopurams and a number of highly decorated pillars. The
pillars of the latter were richly carved as were the inner
walls and depicted scenes from the Ramayana.
The Mughal Architecture
The process of synthesis was completed under the Mughals and
the new architecture which had started taking shape with the
establishment of the Sultanat reached the pinnacle of glory.
The achievements of the Mughal period are the finest in
architecture as well as in other fields of culture and can be
very well compared with any preceding age in Indian history.
Babur and Humayun, the first two Mughal kings, erected a
number of buildings with the help of Persian architects and
these, now in ruins, are not very impressive. Humayun had to
flee the country in the face of the rising power of the Afghan
ruler, Sher Shah Suri. There was a short interregnum of Afghan
rule before Hummayun recovered the Indian territories for the
Mughals. The most important building erected during the Afghan
interregnum is the mausoleum of Sher Shah at Sasaram. The
mausoleum is a well-proportioned building and stands in the
middle of a tank.
The Mughal architecture, properly speaking, began in the reign
of Akbar. The first important building of Akbar’s reign is
Humayun’s tomb at Delhi. In this magnificent tomb, the Persian
influence is very strong, particularly in the construction of
the dome. However, unlike the Persians’ use of bricks and
glazed tiles, the Indian builders of the tomb used stone and
marble. The two significant features of the Mughal
architecture are also evident here – the large gateways and
the placement of the building in the midst of a large park.
The tomb provided many architectural ideas for the building of
the Taj Mahal later.
The next important buildings erected under Akbar were the
forts at Agra and Lahore. He built his palace within the Agra
fort. Many new buildings were constructed in the fort and
perhaps the old ones altered by Akbar’s successors. However,
the parts attributed to Akbar’s reign were built under the
strong influence of the ancient Indian style and have
courtyards and pillars. For the first time in the architecture
of this style, living beings-elephants, lions, peacocks and
other birds – were sculptured in the brackets.
The crowning achievement of the reign of Akbar was the
building of his new capital at Fatehpur Sikri, about 40 km
from Agra. The buildings at Fatehpur Sikri have been built in
a variety of styles making it one of the most magnificent
capitals in the world. It had a circumference of over 10
kilometers. Even now there exist a number of magnificent
structures in Fatehpur Sikri. The arch of the Buland Darwaza
is about 41 metres high and is perhaps the most imposing
gateway in the world. The tomb of Salim Chishti built in white
marble is exquisite in its beauty. The building popularly
known as the palace of Jodha Bai was built in the style of
ancient Indian architecture. The Jami Masjid shows the
influence of the Persian style. The cloisters surrounding it
have a large number of domes and rooms. The Diwan-I-aam and
the Diwan-I-khas are remarkable buildings and their planning
and decoration have a unique Indian style. Birbal’s house is
profusely sculptured with beautiful patterns. Another notable
building is the Ibadat – Khana or the ‘House of Worship’ where
learned people belonging to various religions gathered
together and discussed questions of philosophy and theology in
the presence of the emperor. Then there is the Panch Mahal, a
five-storeyed building modeled perhaps on the Buddhist viharas.
During the reign of Jahangir, the mausoleum of Akbar was
constructed at Sikandara. This is a magnificent monument in
many ways. After a long time, the minar became architecturally
significant here. It has beautiful arches and domes. But the
whole structure, as Ferguson suggested, is inspired by the
Buddhist viharas. Jahangir also extended the palace buildings
in the Agra fort and built the beautiful tomb of
Itmad-ud-daula, the father of Nur Jahan. The tomb was built in
marble and is notable for its beautiful colored inlay work.
Jahangir’s wife Bur Jahan built a beautiful mausoleum for her
busband at Shahdara near Lahore.
The greatest of the Mughal builders was Shah Jahan, the
successor of Jahangir. His reign marks the highest development
of Mughal architecture. Some of the finest monuments of our
country were built during his reign. Under him we find an
exceedingly liberal use of marble, delicate decorative
designs, a variety of arches and beautiful minarets. The list
of Shah Jahan’s buildings is very large – the completion of a
large number of buildings in the Agra fort, the city of
Shahjahanabad and the Red fort of Delhi with its many
buildings, the Jama Masjid at Delhi, the Taj Mahal and many
others. Only a brief description of these buildings is
possible here. The Diwan-I-aam and the Moti Masjid in the Agra
fort are built mainly in white marble with beautiful colored
inlay work. The Diwan-I-khas and the Diwan-I-aam in the Red
fort are richly decorated and are works of great beauty. The
Diwan-e-khas rightly bears the inscription: Agar firdaus
barrooe zaminast-haminasto haminasto haminasto (if there is a
paradise on earth, it is here, it is here). The Red Fort has
become associated with the history of our country during the
past 350 years and it is here that the national flag was
unfurled on the day after India became free. The Jama Masjid
at Delhi with its imposing domes and minarets is the most
famous mosque in the country and one of the finest in the
world.
The most magnificent of Shah Jahan’s buildings is the Taj
Mahal built in memory of his wife, Mumtaz Mahal. It represents
India’s culture at its best and has been aptly described as
‘the dream in marble’. It is remarkably well conceived and all
its parts – the gateways, the central dome, the elegant minars,
the delicate decoration, the inlay work in colored marbles and
precious stones, the lovely gardens surrounding it and the
fountains in front- have been perfectly executed.
The only notable buildings of the reign of Aurangzeb, the last
of the great Mugals, are the Badshahi mosque at Lahore and the
Moti Masjid at Delhi. The period after him is one of general
decline.
A significant contribution of the Mughals, especially Jahangir,
was the laying of gardens. Some of the finest gardens were
laid by him in Lahore and Srinagar.
The new style of architecture had significant influence on the
construction of Hindu temples and the secular buildings of the
Rajputs during this period.
The Development of Painting in India
As in architecture, the cultural heritage of India in the
field of painting is very rich. The first and the most
creative period of the art of painting extends from the first
to the seventh centuries of the Christian era. Of this the
richest heritage is that of the Ajanta Paintings. Many murals
which once decorated the walls of the Ajanta caves have
disappeared due to neglect and the ravages of time.
The paintings of Ajanta depict various themes. There are those
which depict the pomp and splendor of the royal courts and the
romance of love and the joy of feasting, singing and dancing
and the man-made world with luxurious products, buildings,
textiles and jewellery. Some depict the world of nature –
vegetation and flowers, animals and birds. Many themes
depicted are from the Buddha’s life and the jataka stories.
All the scenes depicted are full of vitality. The figures are
drawn with admirable skill. The intense human appeal gives the
message of the unity of life depicted through the panorama of
all forms of life. Every form receives the equal attention of
the artists and the various worlds of painting combine to give
a fuller picture of real life. The medium through which this
is done is the line. In the West what is achieved with color
is achieved with line in India. The line used by the Ajanta
artists is unique, sweeping over vast areas with firmness and
rhythm. It can accomplish with equal skill the calm and serene
Buddha and the restless eager crowds in a dance or a
market-place. This style in ancient times spread to Central
Asia and is evident in wall paintings and in paintings on
wooden panels.
In northern India, the frescoes at Bagh are the best
survivals, most of the others having been lost to us. The
tradition of painting continued for some time other parts of
India, e.g. at Badami, Kanchi and Ellora. It later spread to
Sri Lanka where the beautiful frescoes at Sigriya seem to be
directly related to the traditions of Ajanta.
Gradually the art of wall painting died, though the art of
book-illumination continued, particularly in Jain texts.
The next great era in the art of painting was ushered in by
the Mughals. The Mughals brought with them the traditions of
Persian painting. Humayun brought with him to India two pupils
of the great painter Behzad. They came into contact with their
counterparts in India and under Akbar the synthesis of the two
styles were encouraged. He gathered together a number of
painters from Persia, Kashmir and Gujarat. The Ain-I-Akbari
mentions a number of artists – Abdus Samad, Mir Saiyid Ali,
Miskin, Daswan, Mukand and many others. They illustrated
manuscripts like the Dastan-I-Amir Hamza and Babar Nama.
Individual pieces were also painted. By the end of Akbar’s
reign, an independent Mughal style of painting had been
developed.
Jahangir himself was a great connoisseur and patron of
painting. Under him the Mughal school of painting was fully
developed and made remarkable progress. The painting was no
longer confined to book-illumination. Portrait painting and
depiction of subjects drawn from life and nature became
popular. Some of the finest painters in this period were
Nadir, Murad, Bishan Das, Manohar, Govardhan, Mansur and
Farrukh Beg. Writing about his own knowledge of painting in
his autobiography, Jahangir says that he could distinguish
between the works of each noted painter even if a painting was
the product of joint work. The competence and skill of the
Indian artists are evident from the incident which Sir Thomas
Roe, who came to the court of Jahangir, mentions. The artists
of Jahangir’s court made several copies of a painting which
Roe had presented to the emperor on the same day. The copies
were so perfect that Roe found it difficult to spot the
original.
Thus in the course of a few decades, fine works of painting
were created. The development continued under Shah Jahan. Dara
Shikoh, son of Shah Jahan, was a great patron of painting.
With Aurangzeb, the art declined in the Mughal courts.
With the withdrawal of court patronage many artists went to
different parts of the country and influenced the development
of new schools of painting. Two of the most important schools
of painting that thus emerged were the Rajasthani and Pahari
schools. The subjects of the paintings of these schools were
drawn from the epics, myths and legends and love themes.
Languages and Literature
India’s heritage in languages and literature is one of the
richest in the world. Through the many centuries of India’s
history, many languages have grown and have influenced one
another. Some of the languages that were spoken in India in
ancient times and had a rich literature have become extinct;
others remain important. For example, Sanskrit, though no
longer a spoken language, is still a language of many
religious rituals and of literature. However, the old
languages have left their mark on the languages which we speak
today and which began to develop towards the close of the
ancient period. These languages have be-queathed a very rich
literature to us.
Languages
Besides many small groups, there are two man groups of
languages – the Indo-European or Indo-Aryan and the Dravidian.
Most of the languages spoken in the northern parts of India
belong to the former group and those of the southern parts to
the later. However, these two groups have not developed in
isolation from each other.
People know about the Harappan script which has not yet been
deciphered. We also do not know what language the Harappans
spoke. Sanskrit was the language of the Indo-Aryans who came
to India and belongs to the Indo-European group of languages.
Sanskrit was gradually standardized and given a highly
scientific grammar by Panini, the great grammarian, in about
fourth century B.C. Sanskrit was the language of religion,
philosophy and learning and was used by the upper castes, the
Brahmanas and the kshatriyas. The common people spoke a number
of dialects which are called Prakrits. Buddha, as people
already know, preached in the language of the people. Buddhist
literature was written in Pali, one of the Prakrits. Ashoka
had his rock and pillar edicts inscribed in the popular
languages.
Among the Dravidian languages Tamil is the most ancient. The
others developed during the first millennium of the Christian
era.
Though Sanskrit again became the predominant language of
learning in the period of the Guptas, the Prakrits continued
to develop. The various spoken languages that developed are
called Apabhramshas. These formed the basis of the modern
Indian languages which developed in the various regions of
India during the medieval period.
During the period of the Turks and the Mughals (Mogules), two
new languages –Arabic and Persian – entered India. Of these
Persian is more important. It was the court language for
hundreds of years and continued to be used widely right up to
the nineteenth century. A rich tradition of Persian literature
grew in India during this period and led to the growth of a
new language – Urdu- based on the dialects of Hindi and
drawing much of its vocabulary from Persian. It became the
common language of towns all over northern India and the
Deccan and developed a very rich literature in poetry and
prose.
Throughout the course of the development of Indian languages,
various foreign languages have played a significant part and
helped Indian languages to enrich their vocabulary. This
happened as a result of close contacts with the cultures of
many peoples outside India.
Thus the languages that we speak today have a long history
behind them. There are eighteen languages which have been
mentioned in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India.
In addition to these, hundreds of other languages are spoken
by people in various parts of the country. This variety of
languages has made India a multilingual country. The languages
spoken today have grown over a period of centuries and have
influenced and enriched one another.
Ancient Indian Literature
The earliest known work of the Aryans in India was the Rig
Veda which is a collection of 1028 hymns are in praise of
different Vedic deities and were intended for recitation at
the Yajnas or sacrifices. Many of them are beautiful
descriptions of nature. Some of the most enchanting are
addressed to Ushas, the goddess of dawn, like this one:
In the sky’s framework she has gleamed with brightness: The
goddess has cast off the robe of darkness. Rousing the world
from sleep, with ruddy horses, dawn in her well-yoked chariot
is arriving.
The Rig Veda was followed by three more Vedas – Yajur Veda
which gives directions for the performance of the Yajna, the
Sama Veda which prescribes the tunes for the recitation of the
hymns of the Rig Veda, and the Atharva Veda which prescribes
rites and rituals. After the four Vedas, a number of works,
called the Brahmanas, grew which contained detailed
explanation of Vedic literature and instructions. The
Aranyakas, which are an appendix to the Brahmanas, prescribed
certain rites and also laid the basis of a body of more
philosophical literature. It was the Upanishadic literature
which dealt with questions like the origin of the universe,
birth and death, the material and spiritual world, nature of
knowledge and many other questions. The earliest Upanishads
are the Brihad-Aranyaka and Chanddogya. The Upanishads are in
the form of dialogues and express the highest thoughts in
simple and beautiful imagery. Another body of literature to
grow in the early period was the Vedangas which, besides
rituals, were concerned with astronomy, grammar and phonetics.
One of the most outstanding works of this period was a classic
on Sanskrit grammar, the Ashtadhayi by Panini.
All these works were in Sanskrit. They were handed down from
generation to generation orally and were put to writing much
later.
The two great epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, were
developed over a period of centuries and were perhaps put to
writing in their present form in the second century A.D. The
Mahabharata Contains about 100,000 verses and is the longest
single poem in the world. Besides the main story of the war
between the Pandavas and the Kauravas, a number of other
interesting stories are woven into this epic. The Bhagvad Gita,
a later addition to the Mahabharata, enshrines a philosophical
doctrine and in it are described the three paths to salvation,
viz. Karma, Gyan and Bhakti. The Ramayana, the story of Rama,
is shorter than the Mahabharata and is full of interesting
adventure and episodes. These two epics have influenced the
thinking of millions of people for centuries.
This period abounds in both religious and secular literature
in Sanskrit. The Puranas are important, for they were the main
influence in the development from early Vedic religion to
Hinduism. There were many other shastras and smritis. The
shastras contained works of science and philosophy. For
example, the Arthashastra by Kautilya was a treatise on the
science of governance. There were shastras on art, mathematics
and other sciences. The smrities dealt with the performance of
duties, customs and laws prescribed according to dharma. The
most famous of these is the Manusmriti.
The early Buddhist literature was in Pali and consists of two
sections. The Suttapitaka consists mainly of dialogues between
the Buddha and his followers. The Vinayapitaka is concerned
mainly with the rules of the organization of the monasteries.
The Milinda-panha is another great Buddhist work consisting of
dialogues between the Indo-Greek king Menander and the
Buddhist philosopher Nagasena. Another great Buddhist work
consists of hundreds of Jataka stories which became the
subjects of Buddhist sculpture and are popular all over the
world for their wisdom. Later many Buddhist works were written
in Sanskrit. Of these the most famous is the Buddhacharita or
‘Life of Buddha’ by Ashvaghosha.
The period beginning a little before the reign of the Guptas
ushered in the glorious period of Sanskrit literature,
particularly secular. This was the greatest period for the
growth of poetry and drama. The great writers of this period
are well known-Kalidasa, Bhavabhuti, Bharavi, Bhartrihari,
Bana, Magha and many others. Of these, Kalidasa is known all
over the world. His works – the Kumarasambhava, the
Raghuvamsha, the Meghaduta, the Abhijnanashakuntalam and
others- are unrivalled for their poetry and style. Bana wrote
the Harshacharita, a biography of King Harsha, and Kadambari.
Among te other famous works of the period are Bhavabhuti’s
Utter-Ramacharita, Bharavi’s Kitarjuniya, Vishakhadatta’s
Mudra Rakhshasa, Shudraka’s Mricchakatika. Dandin wrote the
Daskumaracharita or the ‘tales of the Ten Princes’. The
subjects of these and other works were political events,
romances, allegories, comedies and philosophical questions.
Besides these, there was also a growing body of philosophical
literature. The most famous of these in the later period are
the great commentaries of Shandaracharya. There were also
great collections of tales and stories. The most famous
collections are the Panchatantra and the Kathasarit-sagar
which have been translated into many languages all over the
world.
The four Dravidian languages- Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and
Malayalam – developed their own distinct scripts and
literature. Tamil is the oldest of these with its literature
going bank to the early centuries of the Christian era.
According to traditions, three literary gatherings or Sangams
were held at which many sages and poets recited their
compositions. This body of literature consists of many themes
like politics, war and love. The famous works of this body of
literature include the Ettutogai (‘Eight Anthologies’), the
Tolkappiyam (a work of Tamil grammar) and the Pattuppattu
(‘the Ten Songs’). Thiruvalluvar wrote the famous Kural which,
in verse, deals with many aspects of life and religion. The
Silappadikaram and the manimekalai are some of the other most
famous works of early Tamil literature.
Literature in the Medieval Period
In the early medieval period in northern India, Sanskrit
continued to be the language of literature. This is the period
of the works of two writers in Kashmir-Somadeva’s
Katha-sarit-sagar which we have already mentioned and
Kalhana’s Rajataringing. The later, a history of Kashmir, is a
work of great importance as this is the first proper
historical work in India. Another famous work of this period
is the Gitagovinda by Jayadeva, which is one of the finest
poems in Sanskrit literatue. As mentioned before, this was the
period when the Apabhramaha languages had started developing
into modern Indian languages. One of the earliest works in an
early form of Hindi was Prithviaraj Raso by Chandbardai. This
work which marks the beginning of bardic literature deals with
the heroic deeds of Prithviraj Chauhan.
In the southern parts, this period saw the flourishing of
Sanskrit literature. The philosophical commentaries of
Shankara has already been mentioned. Another important
Sanskrit work of this period is Bilhana’s
Vikramankadeva-charita, a biography of the Chalukya king
Vikramaditya VI. However, this period is more important for
the growth of literature in the Dravidian languages.
Nripatunga wrote a great work of poetry in Kannada called the
Kavirajamarga. For a few centuries, the Kannada literature was
deeply influenced by Jainism. Pampa wrote the Adipurana and
the Vikramarjana-Vijaya, the former dealing with the life of
the first Jain tirthankara and the latter based on the
Mahabharata. Poonna wrote the Shantipurana a legendry history
of the sixteenth tirthankara. Another great Kannada writer was
Ranna, a contemporary of Pampa, Ponna and Ranna are known as
the Three Gems of the early Kannada literature. Kamban wrote
the Ramayanam in Tamil. In Tamil, this was the period of the
composition of the great hymns of the Alvars and the Nayanars.
The hymns of the Alvars are collected into the Nalayira-Divya
Prabandham. Some of the Nayanar works are the THiruvasagam,
the Thiruttondattogai. Telugu also produced great religious
and secular literature in this period. This included
translations of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, works of
grammar, science and other secular literature. Literature in
Malayalam also started growing.
The period of the Sultanat of Delhi saw a great advance in the
growth of modern Indian languages and literature. Braj Bhasha
and khari Boli, forms of Hindi, began to be used in literary
compositions. Many devotional songs were composed in these
languages. Heroic literature was written in Gujarati. The
famous ballad Alha Udal and the Vishaldeo Raso belong to this
period. The literature in other modern Indian languages called
Chandayana. Commentaries on ancient scriptures, however,
continued to be written in Sanskrit.
Persian was the court language of the Sultanat. Because of its
literature many Persian words became part of the vocabulary of
Indian languages. A very notable contribution of the Turks was
in the field of historical literature in Persian. In ancient
India, there was no tradition of historical writing. The Turks
introduced the Arab and Persian traditions of historical
writing in India and with them we get a fairly syastematic
account of Indian history beginning with the Sultanat of
Delhi. There were many historians in this period. Ziauddin
Barani wrote the Tarikh-i-Firozshahi which gives a detailed
account of the reigns of the Khaljis and the Tughlaqs. He also
wrote a work on political theory called the Fatawa-i-Jahandari.
Perhaps the most outstanding literary figure of this period
was Amir Khusrau. He was a poet, historian, mystic and
composer of music. He was also a disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya.
He wrote the Ashiqa, the Nuh SIpihr, the Qiranal-Sadayan, the
Khazain-ul-Futuh and several works of poetry. He symbolizes
the composite culture which was growing under the new impact.
He took great pride in his being an Indian and praised India
as the ‘Earthly Paradise’. He praised India’s fauna and flora,
its beauty, its buildings, its knowledge and learning. He
believed that in many respects the essence of Hinduism
resembled Islam. He considered Handawi, the Hindi spoken
around the region of Delhi, his mother tongue and composed
many verses in it. He composed a number of bilingual quatrains
and verses in Hindi and Persian. The healthy tradition started
by him continued for centuries after him.
The regional kingdoms provided a great stimulus to regional
languages and literature. The Sultans of Bengal, Gujarat and
other states patronized local languages and literature. Bhakti
saints preached in the language of the people. Many of them
like Kabir were great poets. There were two main forms of
Hindi in this period Bhojpuri and Awadhi. Kabir wrote in
Bhojpuri and his dohas or couplets have become a part of the
folklore. Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote the Padmavat in Awadhi.
The famous Ramacharitamanas by Tulsidas was also written in
Awadhi in this period. There were many other poets of Qutban,
a disciple of the Sufi Saint Shaikh Burhan, wrote the
Mrigavati.
Literature in other languages also developed in this period.
In Bengali the Ramayana by Krittivasa and the hundreds of
lyrics by the famous poet Chanddidas were written under the
patronage of the rulers. With Chaitanya, the tradition of
writing devotional songs began. Narasi Mehta wrote devotional
songs in Gujarati and Namdev and Eknath in Marathi. There were
important developments in Kashmir under Zainul Abidin, under
whose patronage many Sanskrit works like the mahabhatata and
the Rajataringini were translated into Persian.
Under the Vijayangar Kingdom, Sanskrit literature continued to
grow. However, this was an important period for the growth of
Telugu literature. Krishnadeva Raya, the greatest of
Vijayanagar rulers, was also a Telugu and Sanskrit writer. He
wrote the Vishnuchittiya. There were many poets in his court,
the most famous of whom was Allasani Peddana who wrote the
Manucharita and another poet Dhurjati wrote the Kalahasti
Mahatamya.
As in art and architecture the Mughal period also saw great
developments in literature. Many Mughal emperors and members
of the royal family were great men of letters. Babar, the
first Mughal ruler, was one of the pioneers of Turkish poetry
and also the author of a very valuable autobiography in
Turkish, Babar Nama which was later translated into Persian.
Gulbadan Begum, sister of Humayun, wrote the Humayun Nama.
Jahangir, the great connoisseur of painting, wrote his
aoutobiography, the Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri. Aurangzeb also was a
prolific writer and the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah
‘Zafar’ was a notable Urdu poet.
Hindi literature made significant progress during Akbar’s
reign. Tulsidas, who has already been mentioned, and the
Keshavdas, a gret poet, wrote on themes of love. Rahim’s Dohas
or couplets are extremely popular in many parts of the
country. It was also in Akbar’s time that the great Sanskrit
work on styles of writing, the Alankarashekhara by Keshava
Misra, appeared.
This was a period of many notable writings in the Persian
language. Abul Fazl wrote the Ain-i-Akbari and the Akbar Nama.
Ain-i-Akbari gives details of Indian customs and manners,
religions and philosophy, economic conditions and almost every
other aspect of life. As a historical work, it is perhaps
unparalleled. Abul Fazl’s brother Faizi was a great poet of
Persian and was responsible for the translation of many
Sanskrit works into Persian. Akbar had started a whole
department for translation of works like the Mahabharata, the
Ramayana the Atharva-Veda, the Bhagvad Gita and the
Panchatantra.
Many important historical works were produced under the
emperors after Akbar. Some of the most important historians of
this period were Abdul Hamid Lahori, Khafi Khan, Muhammad
Kazim and Sujan rai Bhandari. Literature in modern Indian
languages also continued to grow. The famous book of Bihari
Lal called the Satsai in Hindi belongs to this period.
One of the most Significant developments during the medieval
period was the birth of the Urdu language. This new language
soon developed one of the richest literatures as a modern
Indian languages. It produced great poets like Wali, Mir Dard,
Mir Taqi Mir, Nasir Akbarabadi, Asadullah Khan Ghalib and, in
the twentieth century, Iqbal and others. Urdu prose also
developed early in the eighteenth century when the translation
of most of the historical works from Persian and Sanskrit into
Urdu began. At the same time many original prose works in Urdu
Azad’s Darbar-i-Akbari. The Urdu novel was one of the earliest
to develop in the Indian languages. Urdu became the language
of the urban people of northern India and the Deccan and is
one of the best examples of the growth of a common culture.
Music and Dance
As in architecture, painting, languages and literature, signs
of growth and synthesis are visible in the evolution of other
aspects of culture. Governed by almost the same basic ideas,
the music and dances of India developed a very rich variety on
the foundations laid in the ancient times. The earliest
traditions of Indian music can be traced bank to the Vedas
which prescribed the pitch and accent for the chanting of
Vedic hymns. The music of the Vedic chant scurvies to this
day. The earliest known treatise of Indian music, dance and
drama is as old as second century B.C. , this is Bharata’s
Natyashastra. Much of the musical terminology used till today
is derived work composed over a thousand years later was
Matanga’s Brihaddesi. The concept of raga was discussed at
great length in this work. A thirteenth century work,
Sangadeva’s Sangita-ratnakara, mentions 264 ragas. Indian
music, both vocal and instrumental, developed with seven basic
wind and drum instruments were later invented. Music has, from
times immemorial, been one of the cherished arts of musicians;
many rulers themselves were accomplished musician. We see, for
example, Samudragupta’s coin in which the king himself is
shown playing on the Vina. Music was also associated with the
worship of gods and goddesses and in its perfection it has
received the same devotion as worship.
The medieval period witnessed further developments in music.
Music was not a part of the original Islamic tradition (though
the form of recitation of the Quranic verses is musical), but
it developed under the influence of the Sufis and became a
part of court life. Many new forms and instruments were
developed. Amir Khusrau, about whose contribution to
literature and historical writing we have already gone
through, is believed to have invented some of these musical
instruments. He was the originator in India of the early form
of the popular musical style known as Qawwali. Khayal, one of
the most important forms of Indian classical music, is also
believed to be his contributions. Then there are the legendary
figures of Baz Bahadur, the ruler of Malwa, and his queen
Rupamati in the sixteenth century. They were not only
accomplished musicians but also introduced many new ragas. The
most notable figure in music in medieval India was Tansen, the
court musician of Akbar. His attainments in music have become
a legend and his memory is deeply cherished by every musician
to this day. The patronage of music continued at the courts of
rulers in the eighteenth century and the traditions evolved
through the centuries were kept alive. The contribution of the
Bhakti and Sufi saints in the development and promotion of
music is very important.
The growth of Indian classical music has been a major force of
India’s cultural unity. For hundreds of years, most of the
words and themes of the Indian classical music have been
derived from Hindu mythology but some of the greatest masters
of this music have been Muslims. It is interesting to mention
here the Kitab-i-Nauras, a collections of songs in praise of
Hindu deities and Muslim saints, which was written by a
seventeenth century ruler Ibrahim Adil Shah II.
Both in vocal and instrumental music, two main classical
styles have evolved Hindustani and Carnatic. Some of the
greatest figures in Carnatic music were Purandaradasa,
Thyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syamasastri whose
compositions continue to dominate Carnatic music even now.
These two styles have many things in common and each has a
variety of forms. The rich heritage of classical music that
has come down to us has been further enriched in the hands of
masters in India today and has won admirers the entire world
over. Besides classical music, Indian people have developed
rich traditions of folk music.
Indian dance has also developed a rich classical tradition. It
has become the medium of expression of emotions, of telling a
story and of drama. The story of Indian dance can be seen in
the temple sculptures of ancient and medieval times. The
popular image of Shiva in the form of Nataraja symbolizes the
influence this art form on the life of the Indian people. It
received the patronage of emperors and kings as also of the
common people. Some styles of classical dance that have
evolved through the centuries are Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Bharat
Natyam, Kathak and Manipuri. All these styles have developed
over a long period of time. Practically every region and area
in the country has also developed rich traditions of folk
dances. The rich variety in music and dance forms, classical
and folk, is a major component of India’s cultural heritage.
Through their music and dance, Indian people have expressed
their joys and sorrows, their struggles and aspirations, and a
myriad other emotions. While at work and during their hours of
leisure, they have danced, sung and played music. These art
forms have been inspired by life and in turn have enriched
life.
In this write up only a few components and aspects of India’s
cultural development have been described. Indians throughout
their history made significant advances in various fields of
knowledge such as science and mathematics, medicine and
surgery, and philosophy. Some of the great names in Indian
science, mathematics, medicine and surgery are Aryabhata,
Brahmagupta, Charaka and Sushruta. A prominent figure in the
field of science in the sixteenth century was Fathullah
Shirazi. In all these fields, India’s achievement reached
other countries. Many works of these men of science were
translated by the Arabs and through the Arabs they reached the
Europeans. Today the world is already familiar with the story
of the Indian numerals. Indians also benefited from the
scientific achievements of other cultures, particularly in
astronomy and, in medieval times, also in medicine. Science in
India failed to keep pace with scientific development in some
other parts of the world only from about the sixteenth century
when modern science began to develop in Europe. In technology,
this situation came even later. The comparative backwardness
of Indian science and technology grew more acute as science
and technology made rapid progress in the West. This has had
disastrous consequences for most of the Indians resulting in
the low life standard compared to the countries in the west.
In philosophy also, India made significant advances in ancient
and medieval times. Many distinct schools of philosophy grew
both idealist and materialist. In later times, however, there
was too much emphasis on writing commentaries on earlier
philosophical works rather than developing new thinking.
Though India’s heritage in this area of intellectual life is
of great importance and has been a significant influence in
philosophical writings in other countries, the neglect of
certain developments in philosophy had a negative effect on
Indian intellectual life. These developments, particularly of
scientific, humanistic and rationalist thinking, began to be
imbibed in Indian intellectual life in the nineteenth century.
This in brief is the story of Indian cultural development
through the ages. Through the long years, people living in
India and those coming to India intermingled with each other.
They developed a rich and dynamic culture always ever-growing
through its internal evolution and through contacts with other
cultures. Many streams of thought, belief and expression
originating else where have mixed with the ever-growing
streams in India and coalesced to form the ocean of Indian
culture. Many streams of faith and religion, of styles of
architecture and art, and of languages rich in literature have
developed during the course of centuries. In its variety
Indian culture is one of the richest in the world. All the
diverse streams have developed in this country and are Indian.
This richness has come about as a result of the freedom which
every region and community has enjoyed to develop its genius
and through their mutual interactions. It also needs to be
remembered that the culture of any country is a dynamic and
ever-growing entity which needs to be further developed and
enriched by every generation. |