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For its strategic location overlooking the trade routes between
the Mughal Capital and the Western Coast, Akbar wanted to safe
guard his empire by befriending the proud Rajputs. Raja Bhar Mal
of Amber was the first important Rajput Chief who entered into
matrimonial relationships with Akbar in 1562. Gradually the
Chiefs of Bikaner, Jaisalmer in 1570 and finally Raja Udai Singh
of Jodhpur in 1581 gave their daughters to Akbar. This left the
proud Rana of Mewar alone in the hostile camp. Though Chittor
was stormed in 1568 Mewar could not be subjugated until
Jahangir’s time.
The Mughal connections brought about interesting and important
changes in Rajput painting. These changes were visible in dress
designs, architectural details, art-motifs, landscape patterns
and choice of subject matter. The ratio of absorptions was not
equal in all centers; the Bikaner school shows more Mughal
element than the examples from Mewar schools whereas Bundi and
Amber retained their basic traits. In any case, when their
chiefs were acting as governors or generals of the Moguls and
formed integral part of the aristocracy and spent most of their
time away from their homelands it is obvious that elements from
the Mughal style would generate a new kind of synthesis. As soon
as the imperial authority slackened and the Rajput rulers gained
in riches and power, their culture became less dependent n the
Mughal norm. It was at this stage roughly from the first half of
the seventeenth century that definite schools of Rajasthani
Painting started taking shape.
At the outset the productions of different centers – Jodhpur,
Amber and possibly Mewar where bhagavata Parana manuscripts were
prepared with many illustrations during the last quarter of the
16th century, show efflorescence of the local style with
isolated Mughal element. With in a few years – during the first
quarter of hte17th century – these isolated elements were
successfully absorbed. With the arrival of painters having
experience of work in the Mughal ateliers, the situation took
another turn when Mughal technical advancement and motifs formed
integral parts of Rajasthani idioms; later on, paintings
produced in different regions landed to exhibit the regional
features more then their earlier indebtedness to earlier
traditions and Mughal styles.
Mewar
The school of painting flourishing in the former state of
Udaipur, the historic principality of Mewar, is the most
important amongst all the schools of Rajasthani Painting. In
ancient and medieval periods the Mewar region was well known as
a great center of artistic and cultural activity. Amongst its
rulers Rana Kumbha (1433-1464) and Rana Sanga (1509-1539) were
great patrons of art and architecture, literature and music.
Rana Udai Singh (1537-1572) built the beautiful city of Udaipur
with fine palaces on the eastern bank of the Pichola Lake. Even,
Rana Pratap (1572 – 1587) who had to flee from Chittor and live
in the abode of Chavand for his valorous refusal to yield to the
pressure of the powerful Mughal army of Emperor Akbar, gave
refuge to artists and craftsmen. With their help his son Amar
Singh (1597 – 1620) had a remarkable set of Ragamala painted.
From his and his son Karan Singh’s (1620 – 1628) reign relations
with the Mughals became cordial. Karan Singh’s successor Jagat
Singh (1628 – 1652) was a great patron of art and architecture
and Mewar painting reached its highest gory during his reign.
The superb quality of Mewar painting was achieved during the
reign of Rana Jagat Singh (1628 – 1652). A brilliant set of nine
Ragamala paintings, painted by Sahibdin in 1628, the Bhagavat
purana illustrated by the same painter in 1648 and the Ramayana
illustrated by Manohar in 1649 testify to this fact. The
Ragamala now preserved in the national Museum, Delhi, is a very
important document because if depicts the high aesthetic quality
achieved by the painters of Mewar during such a short time. It
seems that works like the Ragamala, Nayaka Nayika series; the
Rasaman Jari, the Gita Govinda and Rasika Priya etc. were
prepared in the years following this. The illustrations of the
Bhagavata Purana and the Ramayana were conceived in much more
complex compositions. On the whole the dominating
characteristics of Mewar paintings of this period are – the use
of dazzling colors against patches of blue or red or green, the
appearance of stylized trees, naturalized birds and flowers and
Mughal – type hills, and an admixture of Mughal and traditional
Rajasthani costumes adorning the conventionalized male and
female figures. The paintings follow the Mughal pattern rather
closely but never allow it to overrule the typically Mewari
features in techniques, treatment, and expression which are
simple, straightforward and symbolic. On the whole the painting
of Mewar during the first half of the seventeenth century are
very attractive and charming for their colorfulness and beauty.
Their superb quality inspired movement in far away Aurangabad,
where an illustrated manuscript of Rasamanjari was prepared in
1650 for one Sisodiya Mohan Singh Shekhawat.
Raj Singh (1652 – 1680) was celebrated for this boldness in
proving sanctuary to image of Sri-nathji at Nathdwara, which
became the principal seat of Vallabhcharya Vaisnavas. Due to
paucity of material it appears that the style of painting did
not change during the earlier period gave way to a dull
conventionalized color-scheme. But the school remained highly
productive and inspire of the marked decadence in quality, a
high number of paintings were produced in various centers of the
State. Large number of devotional paintings concerning Srinathji
and his worship and legends were produced at Nathdwara. The
surroundings area which came under the influence of the Mewar
school are Sirohi, Sawar, Devgarh, Pratapgarh, Dungarpur and
Banswara. Though these minor centers took Mewar as their ideal,
development of their styles did not take uniform course. sirohi
and Devgarh produced some wonderful miniatures well up to the
19th century many of which even surpass the quality of paintings
painted at Mewar during the same period.
Bundi
Till a few years ago the aridity of a separate school of
painting in Bundi was not realized. But due to the tireless
research of some art historians and discovery of dated examples
of miniatures, the existence of a distinctive and attractive
style of Painting, developed by the artists employed by the
rulers of Bundi has been firmly established. For its strategic
situation between Jaipur to the north, Mewar and Malwa to south
west-each region famous for its school of paintings and Kotah to
the east, Bundi had the natural advantage of attracting talented
painters from many places.
The true beginning of Hara greatness was made by Rao Surjan
(1554 – 1585) who became a feudatory of the Mughals. He
submitted to Akbar in 1569 after the siege of Ranthambhore. Rao
Ratan Singh (1627 –1631) received honors from Jahangir and went
to the Deccan with the Mughal army. His son Satarsal (1631
–1691) had employed painters.
Unfortunately it is not possible to trace the early stages of
development of Bundi School due to paucity of dated material.
Recently three miniatures from a Ragmala set said to be dated
1591 A.D. have been published. These were painted by three
Muslim painters at Chunar where Rao Singh (1588 – 1607) was
serving Akbar. They show unmistakable Bundi features noticed in
three miniatures from a Ragamala set illustrating Ragini
Bhairavi in the Allahabad Museum, Raga Dipika in the Bharat Kala
Bhawan, Banaras, and Ragini Malasri in a private collection in
U.S.A. which show features that appear as an admixture of
refined Mughal and local Mewar elements. The last mentioned
pictures are dated in the first decade of the 17th century
during the reign of Rao Ratan Singh (1627-31). Paintings of
another Ragamala set in National Museum have been dated c.
1625-1630 as they reveal impact of Mughal paintings of the
Jahangir period. Though a large number of exquisite paintings
drawn after these sets have been preserved in the Bharat Kala
Bhawan, the National Museum and many private collections in
India and abroad, none of them bears any date. Two dated
examples painted in 1682 and 1689 have been found where the
style of painting exhibits signs of full development. But
Satarasal or Chattarsal (1631-58) was closely allied to Shah
Jahan and spent much of his time in Delhi, and quite possibly,
patronized a thriving school of art whose examples, though not
dated or authenticated by inscriptions, have been found in the
above collections.
Taking into consideration the whole range of paintings
exhibiting elements equal to or earlier then the dated paintings
mentioned above, Bundi paintings of the 17th Century will rank
as examples of one of the finest schools of Indian Paintings.
The color is generally rich and brilliant. The female figures
are tall with narrow waist, wearing short choli, colorful ghagra
and translucent odhni partially covering the head; the facial
features of Bundi paintings include pointed nose, receding chin,
almond-shaped eyes and a reddish brown flesh tint. But the most
noticeable feature of Bundi paintings is the landscape
background (Bundi – Kotah Region is famous for its charming
landscape) with hills, flowing rivers, thick vegetation and
colorful flowers. The painters took particular care render the
lush vegetation of well – laid gardens full of mango, peepal and
plantain trees, flowering creepers and birds and animals in
every painting. The water in rivers and pools is depicted in
swirls and the sky in patches of blue. In later periods a
peculiar admixture of gray, blue, orange and vermilion is used
to depict a dusky sky which turned out to be a characteristics
feature of Bundi painting of succeeding periods. The setting of
the scenes are generally against garden pavilions or open
portions. Their subject matter slowly changed and in addition to
the illustrations of literary works, the scenes of hunting,
merry making or formal court durbars were painted.
In coloring and in its infatuation with landscape the Bundi
School expresses a close proximity with Deccani paintings.
Chattarsal’s grandson and successor Bhao Singh (1652 – 1681)
served Aurangzeb as his governor at Aurangabad in the Deccan.
Aniruddha Singh accompanied Aurangzeb during his Deccan campaign
in 1678. Hence it is quite possible that the Bundi rulers
employed some Deccani painters as also the Bundi painters
accompanying their patrons to the Deccan became influenced by
Deccani painting.
In the 18th century more and more portraits, scenes of
elephant-fights, hunts, equestrian studies were painted though
many sets of Ragamala, Baramasa, Bhagawata Purana and
Rasikapriya miniatures were also produced. The coloring of the
paintings lost its freshness and the landscape its natural
beauty. In many examples black and silver borders have been used
as a frame. From the quantity of output the first half of the
18th century marks the most productive period. About the middle
of this century the style of Bundi painting lost its distinct
artistic quality and became somewhat dull and repetitive.
There are many examples of fine wall painting in the palace at
Bundi and other places, which are contemporary to the miniatures
and are of good quality.
Kotah
From 1625 there was a family feud amongst the Haras of Bundi and
in 1628, Shah Jahn conferred the jagir of Kotah to Chatrasa’s
brother Madhav Singh and Kotah became a separate unit of the
Hada Rajputs. In 1719 Bhim Singh (1705 –1720) invaded Bundi and
forced its ruler Budh Singh (1665-1731) to flee. Maharaja Sawai
Jai Singh of Jaipur exerted his control over the Bundi throne by
removing Budh Singh by imperial decree and installing his own
protégé. Budh Singh’s son Umed Singh was able to recover Bundi
in 1743 only with the help of the Marathas. Bundi never
recovered fully from these terrific events.
Kotah, through only 23 miles away from Bundi, developed a
tradition of painting, which was distinctly different from that
of Bundi. The reasons are not far to seek, as the patrons were
individuals of different tastes.
The most celebrated example of Kotah painting are the hunting
scenes in the Ranoria Collection and in the Cleveland Museum of
Art, U.S.A. Many such scenes of hunting, elephant fights and
royal portraits were painted at Kotah, though the usual sets of
Ragamala, Ramayana, Bhagavata Purana etc. were also produced
during the later part of the 18th century and in the early 19th
century.
During the reign of Ram Singh II (1827-1865) the painting studio
of Kotah produced a number of fine miniatures exhibiting Mughal
sophistication which show the king in various sports and
engagements. They are painted in strong and dazzling colors.
These subjects are repeated on the walls of the palaces of Kotah.
A large number of miniatures painted at Kotah during the second
half of the 18th and the first half of the 19th centuries reveal
features typical of the Bundi school. Most of these work were
actually executed by emigrant painters from Bundi as indicated
above. But Kotah (Kota) paintings exhibit great naturalism in
depicting the landscape where the king and his retainers are
interspersed amidst barren rocks, stylized trees and animals as
evidenced in the hunting scenes. The elephants - whether
fighting with another elephant or hunting a rhino or wild
buffalo are painted with extreme realism and understanding of
its dignified behavior. In the Bundi paintings of the
contemporary period the landscape acts as a flat, decoratively
arranged backdrop and does not form an integral part of the
painting.
The Bundi and Kotah painting traditions are continued in other
centers as well, Uniara being one of them. Though Uniara was
allied to Jaipur, the paintings executed there show unmistakable
elements of the Bundi – Kotah style. At least one leading Bundi
painter worked for the Chief of Uniara and illustrated a
Bhagavata Purana for Rao Raja Sardar Singh in 1957.
Amber
Though the family of Kachhawaha Rajputs was firmly established
for a long time and the first Mughal contact with them was made
in 1562 through Bhar Mal’s matrimonial alliance with Akbar. The
origin of the Amber-Jaipur school of paintings probably dates
back from Raja Man Singh’s (1589-1614) time. Extensive frescoes
of early Jahangiri style have been discovered in Mauazamabad,
Man Singh’s birth-place, Bairath, and Amber. Literay woks form
Man Singh’s reign bear graphic description of wall-paintings,
illustration of Ragamala subject, scenes from Bhagavata Purana,
Baramasa, etc. A profusely illustrated copy of Bhagavata Purana
prepared in 1598 at Ahmedabad is preserved in the City Palace
Museum. It is said that a copy of Git -Govinda with more than
two hundred miniatures in the Chaurapanchasika style but dated
1550 was preserved in the Jaipur Pothikhana. If discovered the
manuscript would provide very vital information about the period
and provenance of the entire group of miniature of the
Chaurapanchasikh style. However, no further information about
miniature paintings prepared during Man Singh’s time or earlier
has been found.
Mirza Raja Jai Singh (1621 – 1667) was a well known builder and
collector. He was responsible for building most of palaces and
halls of the Amber fort and also has a superb collection of
Persian and Mughal carpets and miniature paintings. But the
paintings executed at Amber during his reign are mostly in a
folk style.
Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh (1699-1734) was a great personality and
a great patron of art, architecture, literature, astronomy, etc.
He built the modem city of Jaipur which was extremely
well-planned and astronomical observatories commonly known as
Jantar Mantar in Jaipur, Delhi, Banaras, Ujjain and Mathura.
The painters employed by him included such well known names as
Muhammad Shah and Sahib Ram. Sahib Ram was active for nearly
fifty years and painted many large – sized portraits many of
which are exhibited in the City Palace Museum, Jaipur.
Sawai Iswari Singh (1743-76), Sawai Madho Singh I (1750-67), and
Sawai Pratap Singh (1767-79) also patronised works of good
quality painters like Ramji Das, Govinda, Hiranand and Triloka.
The well laid Rani Sisodanji’s Madho Singh’s regin.
The most celebrated name in the history of Amber Jaipur School
is that of Sawai Pratap Singh. He was a great patron of art,
music and literature, being an accomplished composer and
musician himself. He built up a large atelier with more tan
fifty painters turning out exquisite miniatures in numerous
manuscripts of Durga-Path, Ramayana, Bhagvata Purana, and
Krishna Lila etc. Many miniatures illustrating Ragamala,
court-scenes, festive scene etc. were painted during his reign
by such painters as Gopal, Udai, Hukma, Jiwan, Saligram,
Ramasevak, Lakshman etc. The paintings of Pratap Singh’s period
are highly refined product with a bright color-scheme containing
green, yellow, pink and brown – red with a lavish use of gold.
Thought the designs are precisely executed yet they lack in
vigour. Like Madho Singh must have marveled to look at his own
portraits, hundreds of which are turned out by the royal
painters.
In the middle of the nineteenth century the tradition of
painting lost its sap and an increasing proportion of the output
became bad and inferior copies of foreign idioms. The atelier
continued to turn out paintings during of Sawai Jai Singh Sawai
Ram Singh II and Sawai Madho Singh II.
The Jaipur rulers collected many important examples of Mughal
paintings amongst which the copies of the Rayntwma and the
Ramayana prepared for the personal use of Emperor Akbar, are the
most celebrated. Though the painters of Amber Jaipur did not
prepare replica of these works, their styles reveal an
increasing awareness of the Mughal style. Their main
preoccupation, like that of their Mughal counterparts, was to
depict the human figure.
The achievement of the Jaipur school had its impact on local
schools of Alwar, Tonk, Bharatpur and Kaauli. The wall paintings
of Jaipur City Palace (old Madho Niwas), Pundarkji Ki Haveli,
etc., find their reverberations mostly in the Shekhawati area
where extensive remain of wall-painting executed between 1725
and 1875 may still be seen.
Jodhpur
The Rathors founded their kingdom with its capital at Mandor in
the thirteenth century from where it was shifted to Jodhpur in
1459. Though examples of wall paintings are found in a jain
Temple at Nadol, and contact with the Mughals was established
during Udai Singh’s time in 1581, dated examples of Jodhpur
school belonging to the 16th century have been found. A
profusely illustrated Bhagavata Purana dated 1611 previously in
the Jodhpur Pothi Khana and a set of Ragamala miniatures painted
in 1632 by an artist named Virji at Pali, in the collection of
Kumar Sangram Singh of Nawalgarh, are amongst the earlier
examples of miniature paintings found in the Marwar region. The
paintings have a folk character with artistic beauty of their
own. Mughal are relatively rare in these examples.
The same folk style continued for some time as seen in an
illustrated manuscript of Upadesamala in the former Moti Chand
Khajanchi collection dated 1634. but soon after that the style
of Jodhpur paintings underwent a thorough change when the
archaic elements noticed earlier gave place to refinement in
colors and decorative details. However, specimen belonging to the
later half of the 17th century are relatively rare, with the
exception of a number of portraits and Ragamala miniatures. The
figures are generally robustly built and the male figures hold
elaborated costumes and big moustaches.
Paintings in Jodhpur got a new impetus during the reigns of Ajit
Singh and his successors Abhai Singh and Ram Singh, when the
usual literary works Gita-Govinda, Dhola-Maru, Ragamala,
Baramasa-portraits were painted in large numbers. Attractive
wall-paintings were painted, in the palace of Nagaur during the
time of Bakhat Singh.
The Jodhpur style was followed in the Thikanas of Pali Ghanerao
and Pekeran etc.
Bikaner
The style of painting developed in Bikaner has more Mughal
elements than other school of Rajasthani paintings. The reasons
are: firstly, the close association of the Bikaner rulers with
the Mughal emperors – Raja Rai Singh (1571-1611) was
particularly close to Akbar and Jahangir – and secondly, the
employment of Muslim painters from Delhi and Agra. Some
exquisite examples of this school were painted by these painters
during the reigns of Rai Singh (1571 –1611), Karan Singh
(1631-1669) and Anup Singh (1669-1796). Their Subject matter
included excellent portrait studies, beautiful Baramasa,
Ragamala, Byhagavata Purana and Krishnalila illustrations, etc.
In these paintings the dazzling colors of Malwa, the folk scenes
of Jodhpur or the striking landscape of Bundi are totally
absent. Instead of these regional characteristics of Rajasthani
paintings, Bikaner produced extremely sophisticated Works with
delicate lines and tonal range normally encountered in the
products of Mughal studies. It appears that quite a few leading
painters, made redundant by Shahjahan’s shift of interest in
architecture, took service with such gifted patrons of art as
Karan Singh. One of them was Ali Raza who painted brilliant
paintings of Lakshmi Narayana. Other important painters working
in Bikaner court whose signed and dated examples have been found
either in the Bikaner Palace Collection, Bharat Kala Bhavan, the
National Museuam, or in Motichand Khajanchi and other
collections include Rukh-ud-din, Shahaddin, Hamid Ahmad, Shahib
Dan, Rshid, Kasim, Shah Muhammad, Hasham etc.
Besides Mughal elements, Bikaner paintings exhibit close
familiarity with Decani paintings. The reason is Raja Anup
Singh’s prolonged stay in the Deccan schools from the booty of
Adorn in 1989. In general the female figures of Bikaner school
paintings are tall, slender damsels with big eyes, thin waist,
wearing short high choli colorful ghagra and gold bordered odhni.
Though the main point of attention on the part of the painter is
on the human figures, landscape patterns are rendered with great
skill. The portrait-sudies are handled with greater care and the
same applies to individual figures of Nayikas.
During the reigns of Sujan Singh and Gaja Raj Singh, some sort
of transformations took place in Bikaner painting and Jodhpur
vigor replaced Mughal refinement. But at the same time the
creativeness in the art of painting had begun to die.
Kishangarh
A very different type of development took place in the intimate
atmosphere of the small court of Kishangarh which has been
described as a minor miracle in the history of Indian art.
Kishangarh, a small and almost negligible state situated between
Ajmer and Amber and belonging to a line of Rathors of Marwar,
was founded by Kishan Singh (1600-1615), son of Udai Singh of
Jodhpur Kishan Singh built the fort of Kishangarh near the
Gundalo Lake and obtained high position under Jahangir. But the
most important king of Kishangarh who was responsible for the
tremendous stylistic achievement of Kishangarh painting was
Sawant Singh. During the first decade of the eighteenth century
he had written poetry and composed devotional music in honor of
Radha and Krishna. His pen name was Nagari Das – In a beautiful
lady known as Bani-Thani, (he prince got all his inspiration
leading to his poetical creations and patronization of a very
special style of painting depicting Radha and Krishna, painted
by a highly talented painter named Nihal Chand. Sawant Singh
ascended the throne in 1748 at the age of 49 and abdicated it in
1757 to live in Brindaban and worship Radha Krishna until his
death in 1764. Bani – Thani followed him and composed poems and
devotional songs with him till her death in 1765.
The small group of paintings done by Nihal chand and a host of
other celebrates show Radha and Krishna or grove or celebrating
various festivals, all expressions of divine love that
characterize the dreams and aspirations of Sawant Singh (Nagari
Das) as a lover and devotee. Nihal Chand’s success was ill
creating a perfect visual image of his master as lyrical
passion. His Radha is tall, slender, petite and beautiful to a
degree approaching to supper natural. The portrayal of Radha,
(in all probability painted by Nihal Chand) with the overlong
lotus – petal eyes, wearing a sublime look, long pointed nose,
thin lips and pointed chin, wearing an odhni on a very high
orange choti rank amongst the finest achievements of Rajasthani
painting. There is a beautiful painting of Radha and Krishna of
large size in the Jaipur City Palace Museum.
Though the style created by this great painter under the
guidance of Sawant Singh, who was himself a good painter,
continued for many years after his death, it merely repeated the
earlier forms and failed to achieve further.
The study of Rajasthani painting as a separate and important
part of the history of Indian art is of comparatively recent
origin. As early as in 1916, Ananda K. Coomaraswamy pointed out
the special characteristics of what he called Rajput painting.
In generic form he included not only the paintings of the
different schools as noted above but also the products of the
schools of Malwa and Bundelkhand. In fact the bulk of
Coomaraswamy’s book on Rajput painting is devoted to the latter
schools. The production of the areas outside the geographical
limits of Rajasthan have not been surveyed here. With the
availability of more dated material and intense research by
devoted art historians it is possible to differentiate the
stylistic characteristics of the leading schools. There are,
however, many areas where dated material is wanting and in the
absence of dependable corroborative material, no final
pronouncement can be made. It appears from the rate of new
discoveries that within a short time when the collections of the
different major and minor durbars will be opened to competent
scholars a host of important and new information will be
available to complete our knowledge of Rajasthan painting. |
