Sources of the History and
Culture of Rajasthan (From earliest times up to 1200 A.D.)
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Sources of the
History and Culture of Rajasthan (From earliest times up to 1200
A.D.) |
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The advent of men in Rajasthan can claim greater antiquity than many other
regions of India. It is a geological fact that the Aravalli ranges are older
than the Himalayas. In ancient rive beds and natural rock – shelters of
Rajasthan have been discovered fairly early traces of human habitations.
Palaeoliths in abundance have been reported from Marwar and Mewar from Marwar
and Mewar regions of Rajasthan. Then we have a rich microlithic assemblage at
Bagor (Bhilwara District). In fact, the Chambal river-valley, Banas- Berach
basin, Luni river basin, rock-shelters of Viratnagar, ancient – lake sites,
old river – terraces, and several open air sites from different parts of
Rajasthan have yielded palacolithic and microlithic implements, indicating the
early activities of man in Rajasthan. Thereafter we find rich chalcolithic
cultures at Ahar (Udaipur), Ganeshwar (Sikar District) and Balathan (Udaipur
District). The recently excavated site of Balathal has presented the evidence
of a chalolithic village which is earliest (dated to 2500 B.C.) onto only in
Rajasthan, but in India.
The banks of the Saraswati river, which flowed through the western part of
Rajasthan, became the centers of two early and formative civilizations of
India viz. the Indus – Saraswati civilization and the Vedic civilization.
Kalibangan (Hanumangarh District) was an important center of Indus - Saraswati
civilization in Rajasthan. The Vedic literature mentions the Matsyas and the
Salvas as located near the river Saraswati and there is evidence to believe
that by the close of the Vedic age Rajasthan had become fully colonized by the
Vedic tribes. The relics of Painted Grey ware culture have been reported from
the dried- up beds of Saraswati and Drshadvati rivers. We also have evidence
of Painted Grey Ware (PGW) from Noh (Bharatpur), Jodhpur (Jaipur), Viratnagar
(Jaipur) and Sanari (Jhunjhunu). These sites represent the growth of Iron Age
in Rajasthan. |
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Archaeological
Sources |
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Inscription
The inscriptions serve as a very authentic evidence for the
reconstruction of the history and culture of Rajasthan. Not only
do they help us in building up the chronology and political
history on a firm basis; they also offer reliable pieces of
information about the contemporary life and conditions in
Rajasthan.
Listed below are some of the important inscriptions reported
from Rajasthan.
Barli Fragmentary Stone Inscription (5th or 4th century B.C.):
This fragmentary inscription was found in the temple of Bhilot
Mata, about a mile from the village Barli, situated about 36
miles southeast of Ajmer. The inscription is now preserved in
the Ajmer museum. It is engraved on a white stone which formed
part of a hexagonal pillar. The characters are Brahmi. The
language is Prakrit mixed with Sanskrit.
Coins
Coins, though they are small in size, sometimes play a big role
in illuminating history not known other sources. They also serve
as ancillary evidence for the history known from other sources.
Excavations and accidental findings have so far yielded
thousands of coins from different parts of Rajasthan.
The earliest coins reported from India are known as ‘punch
marked coins’ which are made of silver and are dated from c. 600
B.C. to 200 B. C. The punching devices of these coins have no
inscriptions; instead they have a number of symbols. A very big
hoard of punch- marked coins was discovered from Rairh (Tonk
District) in Rajasthan. This hoard consisted of 3075 punch –
marked coins of silver.
An another significant hoard from Rajasthan is that of Gupta
gold coins discovered at Bayana (Bharatpur District). It
consists of 1821 gold coins, which add to our knowledge of Gupta
period in general. This hoard has furnished valuable information
about Gupta currency in particular. It is also indicative of the
prosperous conditions prevalent in India during the Gupta
period. The artistic designs on these coins revel about the
aesthetic sense of the society. Five Gupta coins of silver from
Ajmer discovered by Dr. G.H. Ojha and one silver coin of
Kumaragupta from Naliasar- Sambhar discovered by Dr. Satya
Prakash offer some insight into the religious inclinations and
artistic taste of people. On the coin of Kumaragupta – from
Naliasar- Sambhar, a peacock as a vehicle of Swami – Kartikeya,
has been designed in a very beautiful manner. Six gold coins of
Gupta age were discovered from Bairh, a place situated near
Rairh in 1962. Some gold coins of Gupta age are also reported to
have been discovered from the areas of Jaipur, Ajmer and Mewar,
‘dmonastrating the important role the coins played in the
economic life of the people during the Gupta age’.
Useful information is also provided by several small hoards of
coins issued by various dynasties, tribes and rulers of
Rajasthan. Bairat has yielded 28 coins of Indo-Greek rulers, 16
of which belong to Menander. Excavation from Sambhar have
yielded many coins which include 6 punch – marked coins of
silver, 6 Indo – Sassanian copper coins. Rangamahal has provided
several Kushana coins, including some post-Kushana coins.
Kshatraps coins are reported from Nagari (Chittorgarh).
A significant number of coins were issued by the republican
tribes of Rajasthan. Prominent amongst them are the coins of the
Malava tribe. Thousands of copper coins issued by the Malavas
have been discovered, mainly from Nagar or Karkota Nagar (Tonk
District) and Rairh (Tonk District). The Malava coins from
Rajasthan are invariably of copper and a fairly large number of
them bear their tribal name. The Malava coins can be put in
three categories. The first category of coins bear the legend
Malavanam Jayah (i. e. victory to the Malavas). The other two
categories of coins consist of those coins which were discovered
in association with the Malava coins and resemble the latter in
fabric. The coins of second category bear no legend, while
those of the third bear enigmatic legends like Gajava, Haraya,
Jamaka, Magacha, Masapa, Pachha, Bhapamyana etc. the meaning of
these legends is not obvious to us.
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Other Antiquities |
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In the Vedas, the river Saraswati has been
eloquently and extensively applauded. It was, in fact, the
‘life-line’ of ancient Rajasthan Rigveda VI./49/7). The people
of Matsyas are also mentioned in the Rigveda. They have been
shown as residing near the banks of Saraswati in the Satapatha
Brahmana. The Salvas find mention in the Gopatha Brahmana, as a
pair Janapada alongwith the Matsyas had developed an extensive
kingdom with its capital located at Virata (present Bairat or
Viratanagara in the Jaipur District). The Pandavas are said to
have spent their period of exile at Virata with the help of the
Matsyas who were their allies. According to Mahabharata, the
Matsya Janapada was rich in the wealth of the cows and the
Matsyas were renowned for truth. The Mahabharata also refers to
the Salva country, with its capital at Salvapura, generally
identified with Alwar. The Malvas also find mention in the
Mahabharata as a tribe of great warriors which helped the
Kauravas in their battles against the Pandavas.
The Puranas contain some observations on the sacred places of
Rajasthan. Interestingly, the Skanda – Purana gives a list of
Indian states which includes some states of Rajasthan. These are
: Sakambhara Sapadalaksha; Mewar Sapadalaksha; Tomara
Sapadalaksha; Vaguri (Baged) 88,000; Virata (Bairat) 36,000; and
Bhadra 10,000.
The Chinese traveler, Yuan Chwang, makes certain references
related with Rajasthan. He mentions the place called Po-li-ye-ta-lo
which is identified with Virat or Bairat (Jaipur District).
According to him, “Po-li-ye-ta-lo was 14 or 15 Li or 2½ miles in
circuit’ – corresponding almost exactly with the size of the
ancient mound on which the present town is built. According to
Yuan Chwang, “The people of this city were brave and bold and
their king, who was of the Fei-she (Vaisya) race, was famous for
his courage and skill in war.” Yuan Chwang also mentions the
kingdom of Gurjara by the name Kiu-che-lo. According to him, it
was 5,000 Li in circuit. The capital of this kingdom was
Pi-lo-mo-lo, which is generally identified with modern Bhinmal.
Yuan Chwang says that “the king of this country was a Kshatriya
by birth, was a young man celebrated for his wisdom and valour,
and he was a profound believer in Buddhism, and a patron of
exceptional abilities.”
The period of 700-1200 A.D., in Rajasthan was of considerable
literary activity. The works composed by different authors
during this phase throw a flood of light on the political,
social economic and religious conditions of Rajasthan. |
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Sources of the History and
Culture of Rajasthan (1200 – 1900 A.D.) |
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The period c. 1200 – 1900 A.D. forms one of the
most interesting and inspiring chapters in the annals of Indian
History. But if one intends to study the connected accounts of
the political, socio-economic and cultural developments of
Rajasthan, he is faced with a paucity of material. Though a
comprehensive general view of the dynastic history of Rajput
states was provided by Col. Tod, Kaviraj Shyamal das and Dr.
Ojha, the study yet suffers from critical assessment of society
and other institutions. The study of these aspects calls for a
systematic analysis of source material. For a precise and
critical understanding of history our sources fall under the
following heads: (i) Archaeological sources; (ii) Documents and
Letters; (iii) Contemporary Literature; (iv) Travelers
Accounts; (v) Archival Records and; (vi) Illustrated Manuscripts
and Paintings. |
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Archaeology |
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Of all the sources
archaeology forms the primary source of our study. This branch
helps us to know much about important sites and monuments. The
mediaeval towns like Ajmer and Amber throw sufficient light on
the town planning and life in them. The details of village
economy can mainly be studied from the remains of the villages
which have been abandoned. Jawar is an instance of this kind.
The sites of urban regions afford a scope of study of
concentrations of population and possibilities of traffic and
trade with the neighboring states and land. The Military
History of the forts is an interesting subject of study.
Similarly, the study of the temples of Chittor, Amber, Ajmer and
other regions of Rajasthan enable us to gather information about
the evolution of architecture.
A detailed study of the sculptures leads us to elucidate the
social aspects of the life – the costumes, ornaments, dance,
musical instruments and pattern of living. The priceless
collections of several museums of Rajasthan and isolated
sculptures from various sites have their own tales to tell.
Though a large number of such pieces have met their premature
death, partly due to the ruthless activities of the invaders and
partly due to unsympathetic concern of public at large, the
remnants at our disposal offer clues to several problems for the
cultural history of our period. The images of Shiv, Parvati,
Yakshas, gods and goddesses, collected and preserved in the M.B.
College Museum, Udaipur, belonging to the 12th to 15th century,
depicts a large variety of garments and ornaments and throw
light on mediaeval cults of Rajasthan. A panel at Vela Kabra
temple, Chittor (15th century) depicts village life with a boy
playing a flute and a gathering to the Kirtistamba (Chittor)
depict dresses and ornaments of various classes of people of the
15th century. Kumbhalgarh helps us to determine the dresses of
aristocrats, the style of their moustaches and ornaments of 16th
century. The figures of the Memorial Stone of Gor Singh, Deobari,
V.S. 1736 depict a fight between a warrior anda lion. The carved
panels at Rajasamudra represent a dynamic impulse of art
depicting the costumes, beliefs and several aspects of social of
fights between the animals are highly informative regarding the
popular pastimes of a court in Rajasthan. The figures of Bhils
and Bhilnis, at the outer paner of Rishabhadeo temple, 18th
century, depict tribal life of the South – Western Rajasthan.
Of all the Archaeological sources and other sources, the
inscriptions which are found in abundance, in the form of
stone-inscriptions and copper-plate grants, form the primary
authority of the period of our study. Most of them are found in
temples, mosques and forts, reporting not only about the heroic
and pious deeds of their builders or donators but also
indicating the literary, linguistic, political, social,
religious and economic changes that took place subsequently in
Rajasthan. It is true that some of them record legendary
accounts, yet they, no doubt, serve as the real landmarks of
Rajasthan history. The language of the inscriptions of our
period is generally Sanskrit or Rajasthani. We also have a
number of inscriptions in Persian relating to the medieval
period from different parts of Rajasthan. Some of the
inscriptions are in the running Mahajani script, which is
difficult to read.
We have a number of copper plates also relating to our period of
study from different parts of Rajasthan. A copper plate grant of
1535 A.D., preserved in the old deposited records, Udaipur,
refers to Rani Karmavati’s performance of Jauhar along with
several other ladies of the royal household and of the notable
families of the period. A copper plate grant of V.S. 1669
records that Rana Karan Singh’s wife went to Dwarka and there
granted land to the Brahmanas. Several in the old deposited
records, udaipur of Bikaner give the classifications of land and
the rate of state demands. Similarly, a copper plate grant of
V.S. 1767 (1710 A.D.) refers to grant of jagir to the local
priest of Gaya, Varanasi and Hardwar at the time of immersing
the ashes in the sacred river Ganga. A Bikaner copper-plate
grant of 1816 A.D. is a specimen of the language bearing the
Punjabi mode of address to a dignity. |
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Unpublished – Documents,
Letters etc. |
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Next important source comprises of documents in Persian and
Rajasthani. There are several such collections in manuscripts,
preserved in various Government Departments or owned by private
individuals. These documents constitute very useful source of
our information. They are all unpublished. |
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Contemporary Literature |
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The production of literature in Persian, Sanskrit, Rajasthani
and Hindi has been a long tradition in our country. This kind of
literature covers several aspects – political, religious,
social, philosophical, astronomical, literary and scientific.
Though the main aim (leaving aside purely historical literature)
of its writing had been to enrich the special branch to which it
belonged, it also reflected richness in yielding historical
data.
Persian
If we turn up to Persian literature we find that much has been
written in this language, covering the history of the Sultans of
Delhi and the Mughal emperors. There are a couple of
autobiographies also written by the Mughal rulers themselves.
But as the main emphasis in this kind of literature is on its
accounts of the Sultans and the emperors, it is in vain to
expect from them much which is relevant for the history of
Rajasthan. However, due to the closer contact of the Rajput
princes with the Sultans and the Mughal emperors, we are in a
position to get the glimpses of the events relating to
Rajasthan.
Rajasthani Literature: Vat, Varta and Khyats
This kind of literature at times contains valuable material for
history. It is a class by itself and preserves traditions and
clan-accounts of the Rajpur families and ruling houses of
repute. The works belonging to this class contain material for
finding historical chronology. Some of them also help in
correcting genealogies of ruling dynasties. They also constitute
a valuable repository of information on the cultural history of
feudal families. |
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Traveler's Accounts |
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Quite a large number of European travelers visited India during
our period of study. Their accounts of the cities, court-lite
and general
condition of the country, though vivid, are full of the
interpretation and impression which is not free from personal
prejudices and idea of race superiority. Fortunately in the
general description of India given by the travelers, we trace
out here and there some references to Rajasthan which are useful
for our study of political, social and cultural life of the
state. However, in accepting their statements we have to observe
caution, as what they write is not wholly true and accurate.
William Finch in his Early Travels is in India gives a valuable
description of the outer wall and ditch of Bharatpu, prosperity
of Mewar and Amber. His account of Ajmer as a town and religious
place of the Muslims are very interesting. Similarly, Sir Thomas
Roe’s and Terry’s description of Ajmer and gifts from Jahangir
to Kunwar Karan are vivid and picturesque. Again Manrique Fray
Sebastian’s notices of the town of Jaisalmer, its people and
their local dances are highly informative. The accounts of
Tavernier and Betnier about eclipse, charity, sati system, Holi
festival, industrial activities and Indian poverty are of great
value. Manucchi’s references of the desert of Rajasthan, Ajmer
and Mewar are accurate. His accounts of villages and hills of
Mewat show his intimacy with the area. His observations on the
opium-eating habits of
the Rajputs are graphic. His references to the articles of
decoration of turban, festival of Holi and handicraft industries
of Rajasthan are of great use. Captain Mundy’s description of
the jungles of Bharatpur and the local dresses of the common
people of the town is graphic. Bishop Herber’s description of
Jaipur and Ajmer and his observations on festivals and local
customs are highly informative. |
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Archival Records |
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The princely states of Rajasthan had a historic past which
necessitated the maintaining of records of varied nature:
revenue, judiciary,
police, taxation etc. Obviously these records have a continuity
and throw sufficient light over the various aspects of life –
domestic, political, social and cultural. These records include
a large number of Bahis, Chopanayas, Haqiqats, Dasturs and the
like, prepared date and year wise under the supervision of the
officers of repute. They have been classified after the names of
the pre-merger states of Rajasthan. These records are
unpublished and written in Rajasthani dialects. A brief content
of some of these records will reveal that, being old and
authenticated, they are thoroughly reliable and throe a good
deal of light on some new aspects of the history of Rajasthan.
The Pattas or the revenue records (Bikaner) of our period are
the summaries of items of expenditure and income prepared year
wise. They preserve the mode and rate of revenue of the state.
The Sahar Lakha Bahi records the daily wages of masons and
labourers. The Kamthana Bahis give details of the construction
in the states. The Modi Khana Bahis and the Mahat – Talka Bahis
preserve the names of various office – holders like Patel,
Patwari, Chaudhari, Qanungo, tufedar, potdar, havaldar etc. The
Rokad Bahis refer to several local cesses. The Byava Bahis refer
to various rates of interest and private debts and credit
accounts of the States.
The archival records of Jodhpur consists of Bahis and Files. The
Byava Bahis, as for example, contain accounts of the rites and
ceremonies of royal marriages. The Haqiqat Bahis contain much
raw material for the political, administrative, social, and
cultural history of Marwar. The records pertaining to the
economic aspects have much to say about trade-routes, famine,
labour condition, export and import of the state. They are also
informative regarding festivals of Holi, Teej, Gangor, Dashera,
Diwali etc. the Havala Bahis refer to the units of
administration and the concerning office holders like hakims,
shiqdars, qanungos, thanayatolers, havaldars, chaudharies, etc.
The Hat Bahis preserves notes on the purchase made for the
imperial household, promotions and demotions of the officers and
other details of income from the parganas. The Portfolio Files
of Jodhpur contain original letters, drafts and notes addressed
to the administrators of and the rulers of the States. These
files make a valuable addition to the history of the inter-state
relations in Rajasthan.
The Jaipur Archives contain several kinds of records. The
Siyahah Hazurs supply a mine of information regarding the income
and expenditure of the state, the puchase made, variety of
articles manufactured etc. The Dastur Komvars contain names of
persons employed by the state and the gifts given to them on
several occasions. They also serve as service references. The
Tojees records refer to all items of income and expenditure
parganawise and datewise. There are also Tojees pertaining to
the various departments of the states. The Archival records of
Udaipur also have records like the Rojnamahs and Chopdas. The
Dargah files of Ajmer, for example, refer to the system of
education in the Dargah for the children of the Khadims,
donations made and religious services attended etc. The century
file No. (9) of Ajmer refers to 26 kinds of coins of different
values and weights in use in Rajasthan. |
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Illustrated Manuscripts and
Paintings |
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The Rajasthani paintings which are found in
huge collections at various museums, art galleries and private
collections of the state are
important landmark in his historical studies. They not only
represent the typical styles of different schools of the art,
beauty they also stand as testimony of the age to which they
belong. Right from the 12th to 18th century we come across
several paintings which present Rajasthani culture inits true
perspective, the account of which may be attempted through a few
illustrated manuscripts and paintings. The Kalkacharya Kathas
and the Kalpa Sutra manuscripts of private collections help us
to study the life of the aristocrats, their dresses and
ornaments from the 13th to 17th century. They also show the mode
of living, equipments of the household and other aspect of life.
Similarly the Bhavwat Purana MSS of Jodhpur and Udaipur may be
used with profit to study the pattern of the house of the
various classes of the people. The Ragini sets of Kota and
Jaipur museums paint ladies with dresses and ornaments peculiar
to their status. The Arsha Ramayan of the Saraswati Bhawan,
Udaipur depicts the scenes of the town life, village life and
life in hermitages. The illustrations of war and method of
fighting by the footmen and charioteers of that age. Moreover,
the manuscript is very important as regards the study of the
costumes and ornaments of the ladies and men of different
standard. |
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