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Sources with reference to Structure of
Society and Social Life
Rajasthani sources are lacking in the basic data for the
reconstruction of the structure of society and social life in
medieval Rajasthan. But if we take together inscriptions,
literature and archival records, they are of great value, the
Nadlai Inscription of 1143 A.D., the Rasiya-ki-Chhatri
inscription of 1274 A.D., the Samadhishwara Inscription of
1428 A.D. and others throw much light on different aspects of
the state of society and the people of Rajasthan. The Ranakpur
inscription of 1590 A.D. and the Ekiingaprashasti refer to the
joint family system and the custom of marriage by abduction.
The Chirva inscription refers to an institution which impelled
women to commit Sati. The Kanhadade Prabandha, the
Ajitacharitra, the Ajitodaya, the Rajprashasti Mahakavya throw
valuable light on the varna system, caste groups, pastimes and
similar other institutions. The literary works also say
something of the manners and customs of the people of that
age. The Rajvilas and the Rajrupak record the names of several
Brahmanas and Vaishyas who fought bravely against the Muslims
who invaded Mewar and Marwar. The Samsaubhagya Kavya describes
the socio-political set up of the Rajput society and preserves
the glorious deeds of the Rajput dynasties. The Archival
records like Dastur Komwar, the Hatha Bahis, the Jamakharcha
Bahis and others constitute important sources for our
knowledge of the position of society and social life of the
period under review. The Dastur Records of Jodhpur are like
complete gazetteer of the customs and festivals of the 17th to
19th century. The data furnished by these sources when
coordinated with current accounts and descriptions enable us
to prepare a dependable frame work of the history of structure
of society and social life of Rajasthan.
Varna and Castes
From the contemporary writings we learn the Varna system was
known to the people of the period. But Varna, as a scheme
indicated an idealistic state of society. In fact numerous
castes and sub-castes, based on birth, heredity, occupations
and class privileges formed the frame work of social
structure. The complex and complicated groups and sub groups,
known as castes or Jatis were important divisions of society.
Within each group there were sub-groups or sub-castes arranged
in hierarchical order, bound by socio-religious customs. They
were largely governed by traditional rules regarding inter
marriage, inter dining and other forms of contacts. This
feature guided the isolation of one caste and the other. There
was also occupational pattern which was exclusive and
optional. A Brahman, for example, followed traditional
occupations as well as agriculture. Trading which was mainly
the occupation of the Vaishyas was also open to other castes.
Below are some of the details of the hierarchical and
occupational features of castes in Rajasthan.
The Brahmins
They were divided into a number of sections and sub-sections,
such as Shrimali, Nagar, Pokharna, Sikhwal, Gaur, Sanadhya,
Dadhich, etc. They were engaged in both secular and religious
pursuits. They were helping people in performing religious
sacrifices, attending domestic ceremonies, worshipping
religious sacrifices, attending domestic ceremonies,
worshipping at temples, reciting of kathas, acting as family
priests etc. As these pursuits were not found profitable, some
of the Brahamans engaged themselves in agriculture. Such
Braganans were found in large number in Mewar and Marwar. The
Brahmans of the border areas of Jaisalmer, Bharatpur, Karauli,
Nagor, Mallani and Banswara engaged in carrying trade. As war
condition was a general feature in medieval Rajasthan, some of
the Brahmans also took to a military career. According to the
Rajrupak many a Brahmans played a brave and a heroic part
along with Durgadas in all his activities against Aurangzeb.
Pushkarna Akhayaraj, BalkrishnaDronacharya Vyas and
Lakshmichand were helping Durgadas in rescuing Prince Akbar.
Purohit Garbdas was a great military general of Maharana Raj
Singh. Several Brahmans were also offering their civil and
diplomatic services to the States. One Madhusudan Bhatt waited
upon Sadulla Khan and dissuaded him from his destructive
designs against Chittor. Pushkarna Brahmans held the office of
Diwan and Bakshi in the reign of Maharaja Man Singh and Takht
Singh, as it is evident from the Kharita Bahls of the 19th
century. Kripa Ram’s services were utilized by the Marwar Raj
is visiting Sindia’s court many a times. References are also
found of the Bhojak, Lohara and Katiya Brahmins who were
regarded low in rank on account of following professions other
than those of dignified nature. Those Brahmans who begged from
to door were deemed very low in rank.
The Rajputs
The Rajputs come next in the scale of social hierarchy by
virtue of their being either the ruling class or the class or
the class associated with war. They were originally divided
into two principal and co-coordinated branches, styled as
Suryavamshi and Chandravamshi. To these were added four
Agnikulas. The writer of the Kanhadadeprabandha further
divides them into 36 clans. The Chauhans, the Shishodiyas, the
Rathors, the Chavdas, the Parmars, the Pratiharas, the Bhatis,
the Solankis, the Kachawas, the Chandelas, etc., were further
subdivided into clans and sub known after their own chiefs and
families. These Rajput clans were extensive in their
ramifications and had hierarchies within hierarchies with in
hierarchies of social and clannish nature. These hierarchies
were also exclusive groups as regards the inter marriages
among members of the same clan was concerned.
The Vaishyas
The Vaishyas also, like Brahmans and Rajputs had divisions and
sub-divisions of castes based on either the names of ancestors
or place names. They are Agarwals, Oswals, Paliwals, Porwal
etc. From the study of the contemporary records it appears
that the main livelihood of the Vaishyas during the period of
our study was trade, banking and finance. They also helped the
state in managing the administration. Sometimes they made
their career by military profession. Bhama Shah, Tarachand
distinguished themselves as great warriors and administrators.
Karam – chandra was an able administrator, general and patron
of art and learning who flourished during the reign of
Majaraja Raj Singh of Bikaner. Similarly, Bhandari Khirsi was
one of the trusted lieutenants of Ajit Singh of Marwar. Indar
Raj Singhvi was a powerful diwan and Bakshi of Maharaja Man
Singh of Jodhpur. The names of Kanirama and Amarchand occur as
diwans of Jaipur in the 19th century. As the Vaishyas happened
to be related with commercial activities they became men of
distinction and wealth. They occupied, thus, an important
place in the social hierarchy and displayed intelligence and
zeal in promoting the interest of religion and the states.
The Kayasthas
In the socio – political hierarchy Kayasthas had an important
and independent role. As revenue officers, expounders office
and keepers of registers they occupied important position in
the States. With the growing influence of the Mughals in
Rajasthan, the importance of Kayasthas increased
overwhelmingly, in all the courts, by virtue of their
knowledge of Persian and efficiency in practical state –
craft. In Rajasthan Bhatnagar, Pancholi and Mathur have been
vary prominent in playing their part as administrators and
warriors in Merta war of 1553 the name of Ratan Pancholi and
at Dharmat the name Gordhan Pancholi stand out for their
gallantry and for their gallantry and self-sacrifice. Kayastha
Kesari Singh preferred death by taking poison rather than
disclose Jaswant Singh’s possessions to the Mughals. Pancholi
Bhagchand was a daring general of Jagat Singh of Mewar.
According to the Dastur Komwar Udaichand, Kanirama, Kevalrama,
Gaj Singh and Kushal Chand were holding various important
posts in the state of Jaipur.
The Charans
This is a caste which enjoyed great respectability and
exercised great influence in the courts of Rajasthan. The
speciality of the caste is that it was devoted to literary
pursuit. In receiving gifts and composing poems it was near
the Brahmans and in drinking wine, worshipping Shakti and
participating in war it resembled the Rajputs. Through the
writings of the Charans we know much about the glorious deeds
and dynastic histories of varies Rajput Houses and families.
Such writings consisted of the Khyats, Vartas, Vatas, Raso and
Vamshavalis. They have been recorded, if traditions are
believed, to be the savior of their masters and fighters of
great repute. Kaji, the helper of Bika is still worshipped as
a Devi. Charan Khemraj and Naru Charan are remembered as great
warriors. In the battle of Delhi when Durgadas planned the
rescue of Ajit Singh, Charan Sandu and Mishan Ratan
distinguished themselves as martyrs for cause of their land.
John Malcolm has described the functions and status of Charans
thus: ‘They rank as the genealogists of proud and ignorant
chiefs; and favored individuals often combine with that office
the station of counselors, and establish as ascendancy over
the minds of their superior, which is stronger from being
grounded upon a mysterious feeling of awe. It is to them that
the proudest Rajput looks for solace in adversity, and for
increased joy and exultation in prosperity.” In the Dastur
Komwar the names of the Dhannaji Charan and Ghan Rama of
Jaipur have been recorded as traders. There is another caste
of the genealogists known as Bhats who concerned themselves
about the pedigree of families belonging to various castes.
Their main functions have been receiving presents at weddings,
performing duties of marriage negotiations and reciting
Vamshavalis at public festivals. Sometimes they also engaged
themselves in cultivation of land, trading and fighting as
soldiers.
Other Castes
Besides these castes there were Jats, Dhakars, Kumbis etc.,
who adopted. Agriculture as their main occupation. In the
social ladder the position of the agricultural caste was just
equivalent to the artisans of higher order. The Ahirs, Gayaris
and Gujars also adopted the profession of tilling of soil and
domesticating cattle. Out of these Gujar maids were employed
to look after royal prince and princesses and were respected
as Dhayamas. The male members of this caste were termed as
Dhayabhais. In case they were picked up by some royal families
they very often rose to the position of trust and
responsibility.
The Artisans and Craftsmen
In this group we include goldsmiths, patwas, weavers, thateras
etc.. Who claimed a status distinctly superior to other
artisans like Chhipcis, Gamchis, blanksmiths, shikligars, etc.
in the lowest rank of the artisan’s hierarchy, washermen and
barbers are include.
Untouchables
Besides these groups of caste there were Kasai, Chamar, Balai,
Bora, Regar, Bhangi, Bambhi, etc., who were assigned lower
status in Hindu society. Their despised position as been
mentioned in the Rasiya – ki- Chhatri inscription of 1274
A.D., the Ekiinga inscription of 1488 A.D., the Rajvallabh
(13th century) and other literary works of the 17th and the
18th centuries. As these people were poor they also
supplemented their income by taking to agriculture, to lifting
stones and other types of work.
Slaves
In the social hierarchy of medieval Rajasthan slaves,
generally termed as das, dasi, gola, goli and chakar
constituted a group in the structure of Hindu society. This
was a clan of heterogeneous element of casual persons, male
and female, which remained attached with the princes and
well-to-do aristocratic families. This group was composed of
persons who were prisoners of wars (male and female),
purchased girls, poverty ridden persons or beautiful ladies
who had no scruple for their chastity. Many of them were given
away in dowry or retained for domestic or managerial purposes.
They were looked after by a department, if they were the part
of royal household. The state used to contribute money on the
occasion of marriages or death of slaves. The widows and
children of the deceased slaves were looked after by the
chiefs. From the conventional practice the slaves had low
status in the social hierarchy, But the circumstances helped a
talented male slave or beautiful and clever female slave to
occupy elevated position in the court or harem. The Rajlok
records of Bikaner Archives show that ordinary slaves and
slave girls acquired position and power in the State due to
their merits.
Aboriginal Tribes
They are also a class constituted of the Minas and Bhils.
Minas are found in the hilly regions of Kota, Bundi, Sirohi,
Jaipur and Alwar districts. The Bhils are generally found in
greatest number in the area of Mewar, Dungarpur , Pratapgarh,
Sirohi and Banswara. The Sringirishi inscription, the
Samyakatva and the Resthod – Daneshwar – Vamshavali speak much
about their habits and activities. The chiefs of Mewar made
use of the Bhils in their wars against the Turks and the
Mughals. Though they had no status in the social hierarchy,
they played an important part in the history of Rajasthan. The
coronation ceremony of a Rajput chief in some of the states of
Rajasthan was not considered complete unless the Tika or mark
of kingship was impressed upon the forehead of the new chief
by the bleeding thumb of the head of the family of Bhil or
Mina to which that hereditary privilege belonged.
The Mohammadans
Due to a wide difference of culture and belief, the
Mohammadans had no place in the indigenous social structure.
But like Hindus, Muslims had also a kind of social hierarchy.
At the top, there were Qazis and the Sayids who enjoyed a
privileged position. The converted Muslims were lower than the
Kayam – Khanis on account of their descent from Chauhan
Rajputs. The Pathans who had settled round the North – eastern
region of Rajasthan entered into the services of the local
chiefs as armymen. The position of this class was just below
the theologians and the ascetics. Then followed the Muslims
masses composed mainly of the artisans, like blacksmiths,
stonecutters, tinkers, etc. Many Hindu converts joined the
state services, as Mahavats, jalebdars, bandukchi and golandaz,
as referred to in the Siyah Hazur.
Observations
As regards the structure of Hindu society we observe certain
marked features. In the first place the hierarchy was relevant
with both traditional and functional values of castes –
Secondly, there had been a tendency in castes to move both
vertically and horizontally, though the lower castes never
viewed with favour the horizontal spread of lower castes. In
the third place we notice that in Spite of rigidity of dietary
and marriage relations with the same caste there existed
social relations between one caste and the other at certain
levels. In the ceremonies of marriage or birth the Brahmans
and the barbers had lot of work to do. Similarly, on the
occasion of the marriage of the daughter of the chief (Ajit
Singh), gur was distributed to both high and low. The presents
were sent to the princes even by the persons of lower rank.
The men of lower order were invited to the feast served, by
the chief. Even on economic plane inter-caste relations were
existing. Both in the villages and the towns the services of
artisans of clean and unclean occupations were needed. Lastly
the relations between Hindus and Muslims were very close in
the corporate life of the village and court life of the State.
Very often, it appears from the Dastur Komwar that Muslim
dyers were preferred to Hindu dyers. The Hindus and Muslims
were very close in the corporate life of the village and court
life of the State. Very often, it appears from the Dastur
Komwar that Muslim stone-cutters worked side by side and were
generally supervised by Hindu architects.
Some Aspects of Social Life
Our study of the structure of society suggests that the idea
of hierarchy is non-existent in the case of the social life.
Various aspects of social, behavior, customs, institutions,
games and sports are common with the men of status and men of
lower position. It is quite another thing that the degree of
the various aspects may vary, but the basic principles of
social norms exist in one form or the other. This is evident
from the study of some of the main aspects of the social life
of medieval Rajasthan.
Modern Princes
The land of Rajasthan has always been exotic and the Western
countries have always fantasised about. Rajputs, the martial
races that ruled India, and who traced their origin from the
war gods, and also known for their chivalry and bravery,
belongs to Rajasthan. The rich people and splendid rare jewels
are also found in this rich state of Rajasthan. Over the
centuries, different dynasties ruled from different parts of
the country, and built their kingdoms on reciprocity with
neighboring kingdoms. However, under the rule of the Mughals
and the British, an attempt was made to unify the land and
breadth of the country as one nation. The members of the royal
houses, and those of the aristocratic order that functioned
just under them, drew up an elaborate system that reflected in
a lifestyle that consisted of amazing discipline and sometimes
also indulge in hunting and balls. Some elaborate ceremonies
and marriages that were held during those days lasted for
months, and festivals were celebrated with great pomp. The
rulers built various greatest architectural monuments like
forts, palaces and temples to ensure employment and food for
the poorest. And thus arose the great monument wonders, some
of the most exquisite the world has seen. These royal families
were derecognized by the Constitution of India in 1971, and
their privileges were withdrawn but the dynasties that once
ruled over independent states continue to live graciously, and
are now the famous industrialists, professionals and
hoteliers. Some of the ruling dynasties have also converted
their ancestral homes, forts and palaces into heritage hotels,
which reminds of the glorious past. Some of the Rajasthani
families welcomes you in the homes by saying ‘Khamaghani’.
Hospitality is a courtesy that comes naturally to most of the
Indians, and graciousness is a way of being. The courtesies go
hand-in-hand with festivals and celebrations that are a part
of a way of being in one of the oldest civilizations of the
world.
The Joint Family
In the study of social life, the family is the major unit of
domestic life. The general pattern of this kind of group
consisted of the father, mother, grand father, and
grandmother, daughters, sons and wives. The tie which keeps
every one bound to the group of the group of the joint family
is due to common inheritance in the form of land, house, wells
and even the joint trade. The consciousness of mutual interest
and obligations make them owe and work. The kind of family
grouping is responsible for gaining social security to its
members. The life of the individuals living under the same
roof often becomes colourful and enthusiastic. Under the
family grouping there grew certain traditions and institutions
connected with the Samskaras of birth, marriage and death, the
major events of life. The Brahmans and the Kshatriyas observed
the Upanciyana, the rite of initiation.
Marriage
Another important religious and social obligation was the
marriage. In order to finalize it, Title-presents and
betrothal presents were made. The neg and dowry systems
associated with the marriage ceremony was so taxing that it
had became a problem for persons of ordinary means.
Inter-caste marriage also formed an important part of social
ties among the rulers of Rajasthan. We know from our Rajlok
Records that there were ladies of various communities in the
harems of the Rajput Rajas. Inter-religious marriage grew
popular from the time of Akbar, though the forced marriage was
in practice prior to the Mughals. The practice of willing
inter-marriage between the Rajput princesses and the Mughal
princes continued up to the reign of Farrukhsiyar. There is no
secret about this fact that these marriages were the outcome
of political pressure on one hand and the policy of expediency
on the part of Rajput Rajas on the other. But it must be noted
that inter-religious marriage was certainly a practice which
was a case of deviation from the tradition. Another important
feature relevant to marriage is the practice of polygamy. Our
period had ample evidence of the fact that the kings,
courtiers, Sudras and members of wealthier classes were
polygamous. We know for certain that all Rajput princes of our
period had about nine wives on an average in addition to
several co-wives. Though polygamy was a fashion of the age,
the fate of the woman who lost her husband was pathetic.
According to several documents of 17th and 18th century, a
widow, it appears, had no right to the share of her husband’s
property. Her claim in practice was only to her maintenance. A
Hindu widow was life – long dependence on the male members,
and her sub-ordinate position under young wives naturally
subjected her to a hard lot. From a contemporary painting of
the Khajanchi Collection it appear that she had to use coarse,
black or dark brownish clothes, shave her head and wear no
ornaments. Her life had been miserable in the extreme as she
was denied permission to attend either family or public
festivals, lest her presence should bring bad luck to those.
Who were participating in such-functions.
The natural outcome of the polygamous and monogamist marriage
was divorce. It was not permissible in the higher order of
society, though it was permitted in the lower order of
society. Side by side to these practices prostitution existed.
The Bikaner Gazal and Jaisalmer Garnl fully bear out the fact
that it was a part of the town life of the Middle Age.
According to the writers of the Gazals the prostitutes lived
in the best street and house of the town – These streets and
houses were beautifully decorated with flowers and paintings.
Our Jamakharch records reveal that the State of Rajasthan had
a regular staff of prostitutes who were paid monthly salaries
and were provided with seasonal rations and occasional
rewards. The Devasthan records refer to women-dancers who were
attached to the temples of Jagannath Raj, Udaipur; Govindji,
Jaipur and Mathuradhish, Kota.
Funeral Ceremony
In Hindu society the funeral rites were performed with great
care and devotion. Sati system is also one of the important
aspects of this ceremony. Numerous Sari stones and
Sati-impressions show that, in medieval times, it seems, this
practice of Sati in which from princesses down to the common
women ended their lives. The Ajitoday a presents a vivid
picture of the entire procedure of the performance of Sati.
Associated with the practice of Sati in Rajasthan in
particular, there was another rite which is called Jauhar,
through which ladies made an end of themselves without waiting
for the death of their husbands. It was observed when a Rajput
chief and his warriors were reduced to utter despair against
enemy troops. The performance of Jauhars during the invasions
of Chittor and Ranthambhor by Alauddin Khilji and Akbar are
well-known.
Amusements and Recreations
In the scheme of social life sports, games and means of
amusement and recreation occupied significant position. The
pastimes in which both rich and the poor participated can he
classified as indoor and outdoor. Among indoor games, gambling
with dice was very popular. Mandan in his Rajvallabha has
recommended the construction of a gambling hall attached to
the king’s palace. our classical and pictorial sources of the
period under review refer to a board gems called chess or
satranj. It seems that it was the most common diversion for
the soldiers in camp. For the well-to-do people it stakes in
which large sums were either won or lost. Chaupar was another
important game which was a common pastime in the harem. From
the Dastur Komwar and the paintings of the 18th century we
find that Charbhar, narchhari (tiger-goat), govind prem etc.,
were very popular among the laborers and domestic servants,
who spent their leisure hours in these games which needed only
pebbles to move and a few cowries or shells for throw. As
regards out-door games for children we find reference to games
like Chakkhi, kite-flying, dalkudavani, Ghoda-dari, throwing
of fruits, hide-and –seek etc. One important feature of the
pleasures and amusements of the age was that many a pastime
was strongly influenced by the martial character. Wrestling,
boxing and animal fights were very common pastimes which were
cultivated as physical culture during the period under review.
These games were popular pastimes both in the court and with
the commoners. From the Amassar and the Jamakharcha Bahis we
find that boxers and wrestlers were employed by the princes on
monthly or yearly or half-yearly remuneration. On occasions of
birthdays of princes and religious festivals elephant fight
was witnessed by the rulers and the ruled. In the Rajratnakar
and the Rajvinoda mention has been made of fighting of birds.
In the sculptured art at Raj Samudra, Mewar, and Jagatsiromani
Mandir, Jaipur, there are depiction of various birds and
animals and their fights. Archery, swordsmanship, cudgeling,
stickmanship, pattabazi, etc., were much. Coveted amusements
of the youths in the towns and at the courts of the states of
Rajasthan. similarly, hunting was a favorite amusements of
kings and nobles of our period. A regular department was
maintained in the States to assist the princes in organizing
hunting expeditions. Among other amusements references have
been made to Boating, swimming, singing and dancing, etc.
Acrobatic feats of rope dancing by nats seem to have been very
popular during our period. There are also passing references
to the dramatic performances of rasa and khyala. |
